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HOW    TO    TEACH    READING 


IN    THE 


PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 


BY 

S.  H.  CLARK,  Ph.B. 

OF  THE    UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 

Author  of  *'  How  to  Read  Aloud''  and  Associate  Author  of  "Principles  of  Vocal 
Expression  arid  lAterary  Interpretation  " 


CHICAGO 

SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 

1902 


Copyright  1898, 
By  SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 

EDUCATJON  DEFI^ 


PRESS  OF 

THE  HENRY  O.  SHEPARD  CO. 

CHICAGO. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface         5 

Introduction 7 

PART  ONE 

THE  CRITERIA  OF  VOCAL  EXPRESSION 

Chapter        I.    The  Criterion  of  Time  .....  19 

II.     The  Criterion  of  Pitch       .        .        ,        .  42 

III.  The  Criterion  of  Quality       ....  80 

IV.  The  Criterion  of  Force      ....  101 

PART  TWO 

METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Chapter      V.    The  Mental  Attitude  of  the  Reader    .        .  117 

VI.     Grouping 128 

VII.    Succession  of  Ideas        .....  132 

VIII.     Central  Idea 138 

IX.     Subordination 149 

X.    Values 157 

XI.     Emotion 172 

XII.    Atmosphere.        ......  184 

XIII.  Contrasts 205 

XIV.  Climaxes 212 

XV.    Concluding  Remarks  on  Method  .        .        ,  224 

PART  THREE 

LITERARY  INTERPRETATION 

Chapter  XVI.    Literary  Interpretation      ....  231 

Index 291 


5  4  3668 


PEEFAOE 

This  book  is  intended  primarily  as  a  manual  for  teachers 
of  reading  in  the  public  schools.  In  the  preparation  of  the 
work  the  author  has  borne  in  mind  the  chief  needs  of  the 
teacher:  First,  that  he  should  thoroughly  understand  how 
thought  and  feeling  are  expressed;  and,  second,  that  he 
should  have  a  definite  graded  method  of  instruction,  in  which 
the  simple  precedes  the  complex,  and  in  which  one  element, 
and  one  only,  is  presented  at  a  time. 

The  book  is,  therefore,  an  endeavor  to  assist  the  teacher  of 
reading,  by  explaining  the  psychology  of  expression ;  by  pre- 
senting a  practical  method  of  instruction ;  and  by  discussing 
certain  general  principles  of  literary  interpretation. 

Though  the  main  motive  of  the  book  has  been  to  improve 
the  teaching  of  reading  in  the  public  schools,  the  aim  has  also 
been  to  provide  a  text  book  for  use  in  normal  schools  and 
classes  in  elocution. 

Portions  of  the  book  have  already  appeared  in  Principles 
of  Vocal  Expression  and  How  to  Read  Aloud,  the  latter  of 
which  is  now  out  of  print.  The  reception  accorded  these 
books  leads  the  author  to  hope  that  the  present  manual  may 
meet  with  similar  approval  from  his  fellow  teachers. 

S.  H.  CLAEK. 


INTRODUOTIOI^ 


Learning  to  read  is  the  beginning  of  the  child's  formal 
education,  and  at  every  step  in  his  progress  he  must  make  use 
of  the  ability  acquired  through  the  reading  lesson.  The  work 
of  the  teacher  of  reading  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  whole  educational  system,  and  a  generous 
recognition  of  the  sincere  efforts  of  the  past  will  certainly  be 
accorded  those  who  have  been  engaged  in  this  work.  And  yet, 
to  one  who  makes  a  careful  study  of  oral  expression  in  our 
public  schools,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  results  are  not 
satisfactory  when  compared  with  those  in  other  departments. 
One  authority  asserts  that,  after  the  child's  twelfth  year,  his 
ability  as  a  reader  steadily  declines.  This  statement  may  be 
too  sweeping.  A  truer  view  might  be  that  in  the  upper  grades 
reading  is  set  aside  in  favor  of  other  studies,  and  as  a  result 
the  growth  of  power  in  expression  is  relatively  less  than  the 
development  of  the  child  in  other  directions.  Certain  it  is 
that  college  and  high  school  students  are  plainly  deficient  in 
their  ability  to  read. 

Many  remedies  have  been  suggested,  from  which  two  may 
be  selected  as  typical.  One  is  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
child  to  the  mechanics  of  vocal  expression,  such  as  inflection, 
force,  and  movement.     The  other — ^that  commonly  employed 


8  INTRODUCTION 

— is  to  tell  the  child  to  get  the  thought.  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  both  methods  have,  in  many  cases,  been  productive  of 
much  good,  yet,  on  the  whole,  owing  to  the  frequent  lack  of 
definiteness  in  their  application,  they  have  failed  of  the 
highest  results.     Let  us  inquire  briefly  into  the  causes. 

The  mechanical  method  fails,  especially  with  younger 
people,  because  it  is  dry,  technical,  unstimulating,  and,  in  the 
main,  uninteresting.  It  deals  with  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
different  elements  of  vocal  expression,  telling  the  child  he 
must  use  a  rising  inflection  here,  a  falling  inflection  there; 
that  he  must  read  parenthetical  phrases  and  clauses  in  lower 
pitch  and  faster  time ;  that  this  emotion  should  be  manifested 
in  normal  quality,  that  emotion  in  orotund  quality;  and  so  on 
through  weary,  dreary  rules  and  principles,  the  study  of 
which  has  oftentimes  wrought  much  harm.  The  ''get4he- 
thought"  method  is  a  revolt  against  the  other  plan. 
Eecognizing  the  fact  that  drills  in  the  mechanics  have  done 
little  toward  elevating  the  standard  of  reading,*  the  con- 
scientious principal  or  superintendent  tells  his  teachers  that 
they  must  see  to  it  that  the  pupils  get  the  thought.  This  is 
a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  the  average  result  does  not  seem  to  justify  the  method. 
And  the  chief  reasons  for  this  are  two :  first,  for  one  cause 
or  another  the  finer  shades  of  meaning  too  often  escape  us ;  f 
second,  very  few  teachers  have  received  the  necessary  train- 
ing to  enable  them  to  discern  quickly  with  what  mental  con- 

*  Throughout  this  work  reading  is  used  as  an  equivalent  for  oral  ex- 
pression. 

t  See  passages  from  Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  The 
Merchant  of  Venice^  page  30. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

ditions  various  forms  of  vocal  expression  are  associated.  In 
other  words,  they  have  not  the  criteria  of  vocal  expression; 
and,  in  consequence,  helpful  criticism  is  impossible. 

Why  have  our  methods  of  teaching  failed  to  produce 
results  commensurate  with  the  time  given  to  the  reading 
lesson?  There  are  three  very  evident  reasons:  the  lack  of 
appreciation  of  the  best  literature  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
thft  complexity  of  vocal  expression,  and  the  intangibility  of 
vocal  expression. 

Appreciation  of  the  meaning  and  beauty  of  literature  is 
the  first  requisite  of  a  successful  teacher  of  reading ;  and  yet 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  there  are  a  surprising  number 
who  are  called  upon  to  teach  with  scarcely  more  than  an 
elementary  training  in  literature.  As  a  result  too  many 
teachers  have  no  love  for  literature.  The  fault  is  not  theirs, 
but  that  of  the  method  of  teaching  literature  that  sub- 
stitutes grammar,  philology,  history,  and  lectures  about 
literature  for  the  study  of  the  meaning  and  beauty  of  the 
literature  itself.  One  may  safely  assert  that  thousands  of 
children  would  be  better  readers,  even  with  the  present 
methods,  if  their  teachers  had  a  higher  interest  in  the  best 
literature.  Of  what  avail  is  it  to  put  good  literature  into  the 
school-books,  if  its  merit  does  not  appeal  as  well  to  the 
instructor  as  to  the  pupil?  The  stream  can  rise  no  higher 
than  its  source.  There  is,  however,  a  rapidly  growing  senti- 
ment against  the  substitution  of  parsing,  history,  philology, 
or  ethics  for  genuine  literary  instruction.  Our  best  schools 
of  training  now  recognize  that  literature  is  art,  beauty,  spirit ; 
and  when  this  recognition  becomes  general,  we  shall  have 


;, 


10  INTRODUCTION 

better  teachers  and  better  readers.  For  there  is  nothing  that 
so  stimulates  our  vocal  expression  as  the  desire  to  impress 
upon  others  the  beauty  and  feeling  of  what  has  impressed 
ourselves. 

There  is  necessary  a  careful  discrimination  between  literary 
interpretation  and  vocal  expression.  Many  who  have  a  clear 
appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  literature  have  yet  no  ability  as 
teachers  of  reading,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  lack  a  specific 
knowledge  of  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  complexity  and 
intangibility  of  vocal  expression. 

Complexity  may  be  defined  by  illustration.  A  phrase  may 
be  read  fast  or  slow ;  in  high  or  low  key ;  with  one  melody  or 
another ;  with  loud  or  subdued  force ;  with  this  quality  of  voice 
or  with  that.  Now  all  these  elements  are  present  at  one  time ; 
so  that,  without  proper  training,  the  teacher  is  unable  to 
recognize  the  force  of  each,  and  is  hence  unable  to  give  the 
needful  correction,  without  which  there  can  be  no  progress. 

Intangibility  may  be  explained  by  showing  what  is  meant 
by  a  tangible  subject.  The  spelling  lesson  is  tangible;  the 
arithmetic  lesson  is  tangible.  A  mistake  is  easily  recognized 
and  corrected.  Three  months  after  a  paper  on  these  subjects 
has  been  handed  in,  the  teacher  can  go  back  to  it  and  examine 
it.  But  vocal  expression  is  evanescent,  and,  by  the  untrained, 
can  be  recalled  imperfectly,  if  at  all,  and  then  only  a  short 
time  after  it  has  been  heard.  In  the  presence  of  the  combined 
difficulties  due  to  complexity  and  intangibility,  the  teacher  is 
discouraged ;  and,  conscientious  though  he  be,  he  gives  up  his 
effort.  The  teaching  becomes  perfunctory ;  the  children  lose 
interest;  and  there  is  the  end  of  reading.     Beading,  which 


INTRODUCTION  11 

should  be  the  brightest  and  most  inspiring  of  lessons,  degen- 
erates into  a  humdrum,  dry-as-dust  time-killer.  Only  an 
imperfect  idea  of  a  pupil's  reading  ability  can  be  gained  from 
a  knowledge  of  the  class  he  is  in.  He  is  rarely  a  better  reader 
in  the  eighth  year  of  his  school  life  than  he  is  in  his  fifth  or 
sixth.  The  teacher  has  come  to  recognize  the  futility  of  his 
efforts;  and  so,  in  many  class  rooms,  the  time  set  apart  for 
reading  is  given  up  to  language  lessons,  composition,  and 
other  studies,  valuable  in  themselves,  but  only  incidentally 
helpful  in  increasing  the  pupil's  reading  power. 

It  may  be  asked,  what  objects  are  to  be  attained  as  a  result 
of  reading  lessons?  First,  the  power  to  extract  thought 
from  the  printed  page.  After  we  leave  school,  our  infor- 
mation is  gained  from  books;  and  what  we  get  from  these 
is  largely  determined  by  our  school  training.  Our  system 
of  education  has  much  to  answer  for  in  failing  to  provide 
this  training.  The  value  of  vocal  expression  is  not  to  be 
depreciated,  but  of  the  utmost  importance  is  the  ability  to 
get  the  author's  meaning.  Our  teaching,  from  the  primary 
grade  to  the  university,  should  never  lose  sight  of  its  respon- 
sibility in  this  regard.  In  the  words  of  Carlyle:  '^What  the 
universities  can  mainly  do  for  you, — ^what  I  have  found  the 
University  did  for  me,  was.  That  it  taught  me  to  read." 
This  remark,  of  course,  applies  to  silent  reading.  A  well- 
known  college  professor,  in  response  to  a  school  superintend- 
ent's question  as  to  what  would  better  the  preparation  of 
students  for  college,  replied:  "Teach  them  how  to  read." 
Another  college  instructor — a  learned  authority  on  geology — 
remarks  that  he  finds  occasion  to  say  to  his  classes  about  once 


12  INTRODUCTION 

a  month,  "It's  a  great  thing  to  be  able  to  read  a  page  of 
English."  No  one  who  examines  the  reading  in  our  schools 
can  fail  to  be  impressed,  not  so  much  with  the  absence  of  ex- 
pressive power,  as  with  the  absence  of  mental  grasp.  We  are  so 
anxious  to  get  on  that  we  are  content  with  skimming  the 
surface,  and  do  not  take  the  time  to  get  beneath  it.  The 
reading  lesson  should  be,  primarily,  a  thinking  lesson,  and 
every  shade  of  thought  should  be  carefully  distinguished,  no 
matter  how  long  a  time  may  be  consumed.  The  habit  of 
hurrying  over  the  page,  which  is  so  prevalent,  is  clearly  an 
outgrowth  of  schoolroom  methods.  Careless  of  all  the  future, 
we  are  too  prone  to  push  the  pupil  along,  ignoring  the 
simplest  and  most  evident  of  psychological  laws,  that  thought 
comes  by  thinking,  and  thinking  takes  time,  t 

One  tires  of  the  familiar  excuse  for  the  laxity  of  our 
methods :  we  have  not  the  time.  The  reply  to  teacher,  super- 
intendent, and  school  board  is,  we  have  no  time  to  teach  a 
subject  poorly.  If  thought-getting — genuine  thought-getting 
— were  insisted  on  from  the  outset,  without  doubt  the  work 
which  now  requires  six  or  seven  years  to  accomplish  could  be 
done  in  five.  How  much  thought  power  has  the  average 
public-school  graduate?  Very  little.  And  yet,  if  all  lessons 
— ^history,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  the  rest — were  made 
thought  lessons,  a  child  of  fourteen  would  be  on  the  road  to 
educating  himself  when  he  left  school.  Is  it  not  a  common 
occurrence  for  a  bright  boy  or  girl  to  spend  three  or  four 
hours  a  day  in  the  preparation  of  his  lessons,  and  then  come 
to  the  class  only  to  find  that  by  his  ignorance  of  method,  he 
has  practically  wasted  his  time?    As  a  final  word  upon  this 


INTRODUCTION  13 

theme,  the  teacher  might  well  ponder  these  noble  sentences 
of  a  noble  man,  '*When  thou  readest,  look  steadfastly  with 
the  mind  at  the  things  the  words  symbolize.  If  there  be 
question  of  mountains,  let  them  loom  before  thee;  if  of  the 
ocean,  let  its  billows  roll  before  thy  eyes.  This  habit  will  give 
to  thy  voice,  even,  pliancy  and  meaning.  The  more  sources 
of  interest  we  have,  the  richer  is  our  life.  To  hold  any  por- 
tion of  truth  in  a  vital  way  is  better  than  to  have  its  whole 
baggage  stored  merely  in  one's  memory."  And,  again,  *'He  ^-^ 
who  thinks  for  himself  is  rarely  persuaded  by  another,  t^ 
Information  and  inspiration  he  gladly  receives,  but  he  forms  \y 
his  own  judgment.  Arguments  and  reasons  which,  to  the 
thoughtful,  sound  like  mockery,  satisfy  the  superficial  and 
ignorant."  And  there  is  no  better  way  to  develop  such  a 
thinking  person  than  by  that  thought  analysis  which  is  the 
first  and  indispensable  step  to  true  oral  expression. 

Most  readers,  like  good-natured  cows, 

Keep  browsing  and  forever  browse ; 

If  a  fair  flower  come  in  their  way 

They  take  it,  too,  nor  ask,  "What,  prayl" 

Like  other  fodder  it  is  food, 

And  for  the  stomach  quite  as  good. 

Training  in  thought -getting  is,  then,  the  first  result  to  be 
expected  from  the  reading  lesson.  The  second  is  the  power  of 
adequate  vocal  expression.  The  temptation  to  enlarge  upon 
the  many  benefits  to  body,  voice,  mind  and  soul,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  practical,  worldly  benefits  of  vocal  expression, 
is  resisted.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that  they  are  recognized ; 
so  that  we  pass  on  to  the  discussion  of  a  plan  that  may  help 


14  INTRODUCTION 

us  to  get  these  benefits;  prefacing  the  discussion  with  the 
statement  that  the  evil  results  of  our  present  laxity  are  not  to 
be  laid  at  the  door  of  the  individual  teacher,  but  at  that  of 
the  educational  system  in  general. 

This  work  makes  no  pretensions  to  treat  in  any  detail 
reading  as  an  art.  Its  sole  object  is  to  present  the  ideal  of  the 
reading  lesson  and  suggest  ways  and  means  by  which  that 
ideal  may  be  brought  somewhat  nearer  to  our  grasp.  Never- 
theless, to  those  who  may  desire  to  study  reading  as  an  art,  it 
can  be  safely  said,  that  we  must  first  be  good  readers  before 
we  can  be  true  artists ;  and  since  this  is  so,  there  should  be 
much  gain  to  them  from  a  careful,  definite  study  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  here  discussed.  For  special  teachers  of 
elocution,  also,  it  is  hoped  that  the  book  may  prove  of  some 
value,  as  dealing  with  those  elements  without  the  understand- 
ing of  which  successful  teaching  of  advanced  work  is  impossible. 

Vocal  culture,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  finds  no 
place  in  this  discussion.  The  reason  for  this  omission  will 
appear  in  the  following  pages.  This  much,  however,  may  be 
stated  here :  except  under  particularly  favorable  circumstances, 
very  little  can  be  done  in  voice  training  in  our  public 
schools ;  but  by  the  plan  herein  presented,  the  voices  of  our 
children  may  be  made  truly  expressive,  and  that,  after  all,  is 
of  more  value  to  them  than  mere  technical  facility. 

While  the  subject  of  primary  school  reading  is  not  dis- 
cussed directly,  the  primary  teacher  should  derive  considerable 
assistance  from  the  book,  inasmuch  as  it  aims  to  present  the 
standard  of  criticism  and  the  psychology  of  reading.  With 
him  rests  to  a  great  extent  the  success  of  any  method  of  oral 


INTRODUCTION  16 

expression.  That  he  should  have  a  clear  conception  of  the 
goal  of  the  reading  lesson  and  the  manner  of  reaching  it,  is 
therefore  beyond  dispute. 

The  book  has  a  double  purpose.  First,  to  assist  the 
teacher  to  teach  reading;  second,  to  help  the  teacher  to 
improve  his  own  reading.  The  latter  purpose  explains  the 
amount  of  illustrative  matter,  and  also  the  fact  that  some 
of  this  is  beyond  the  grasp  of  young  and  immature  minds. 


PART   ONE 


THE  CRITERIA  OF  VOCAL  EXPRESSION 


CHAETER  I 


THE    CRITERIOiq^    OP   TIME 


It  must  be  clear  that  no  progress  can  be  made  in  the 
teaching  of  any  subject  unless  the  teacher  possess  a  definite 
standard  of  criticism;  and,  furthermore,  it  must  be  granted 
that  the  teacher  of  reading  does  not  possess  this  standard.  We 
have  a  standard  in  spelling,  in  arithmetic,  in  geography,  but 
none  in  reading — at  least  none  clearly  apprehended  and  scien- 
tifically applied.  It  is,  therefore,  the  purpose  of  the  first  part 
of  this  book  to  present  those  elements  of  vocal  expression — the 
four  criteria — a  knowledge  of  which  is  indispensable  to  any 
progress  in  the  teaching  of  reading.  These  are.  Time,  I^iUh, 
Quality,  and  Force,  the  first  of  which  we  now  proceed  to 
study  in  detail. 

In  Professor  Raymond's  admirable  work.  The  Orator'^s 
Manual,  there  appear  these  significant  words :  ''The  relative 
time  apportioned  to  a  word  indicates  the  mind's  measurement 
of  it, — ^represents  the  speaker's  judgment  as  to  the  amount  of 
meaning  or  importance  that  it  conveys."  A  moment's 
thought  must  convince  us  of  the  truth  of  this  statement. 
Making  due  allowance  for  certain  speakers,  who,  for  one 
cause  or  another,  have  an  unusually  slow  or  fast  utterance,  the 
principle  laid  down  by  Professor  Raymond  is,  without  doubt, 
psychologically  sound.  In  fact,  it  is  a  platitude;  but  like 
many  another  platitude,  its  truth  is  so  close  to  us  that  we  fail 
to  perceive  its  meaning  and  application.  An  additional  proof 
of  the  soundness  of  this  principle  is  found  in  music.      A 

19 


20  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

solemn  dirge,  a  funeral  march,  an  anthem  of  praise  is  ren- 
dered in  slow  time;  while  moderate  and  fast  time  seem  the 
fitting  expression  of  the  lighter  moods. 

Time,  then,  refers  to  the  rate  of  vocal  movement.  It  may 
be  fast,  or  moderate,  or  slow,  according  to  the  amount  of  what 
may  be  called  the  collateral  thinking  accompanying  the  read- 
ing of  any  given  passage.  To  put  it  another  way :  a  phrase 
is  read  slowly  because  it  means  much ;  because  the  thought  is 
large,  sublime,  deep.  The  collateral  thinking  may  be  revealed 
by  an  expansive  paraphrase.     For  instance,  in  the  lines 

Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note, 
As  his  corse  to  the  ramparts  we  hurried, 

why  do  we  read  slowly?  The  paraphrase  answers  the  question. 
It  was  midnight.  There  lay  our  beloved  leader,  who  should 
have  been  borne  in  triumphal  procession  to  his  last  resting 
place.  Bells  should  have  tolled,  cannon  thundered,  and 
thousands  should  have  followed  his  bier.  But  now,  alas !  by 
night,  by  stealth,  without  even  a  single  drum  tap,  in  fear  and 
dread,  we  crept  breathless  to  the  ramparts.  This,  or  any 
one  of  a  hundred  other  paraphrases,  will  suiBfice  to  render  the 
vocal  movement  slow.  And  so  it  is  with  all  slow  time.  Let  it 
be  remembered  that  a  profound  or  sublime  thought  may  be 
uttered  in  fast  time ;  but  that  when  we  dwell  upon  that  thought, 
when  we  hold  it  before  the  mind,  the  time  must  necessarily  be 
slow. 

The  succeeding  passages  will  have  a  prevailingly  slow 
movement.  Measure  the  thought  carefully,  and  think  the 
expansive  paraphrase.  These  drills  are  not  to  train  us  to  read 
slowly  (for  any  one  can  do  that),  but  to  think  largely.  The 
movement  will  take  care  of  itself.  It  is  further  urged  that 
the  student  give  considerable  attention  to  this  part  of  the 
subject;    for   the  time  so  spent  will   be  valuable   not  only 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  21 

as  it  results  in  expressive  movement,  but  because  it  is  only 
through  meditation  that  the  fullest  insight  into  the  meaning 
of  a  passage  can  be  acquired.  Hence,  dwelling  for  a  long 
period  upon  a  phrase  or  sentence  gives  opportunity  for  the 
enkindling  of  the  imagination  and  emotion.  It  has  been  fre- 
quently found  that  where  a  student's  movement  was  out  of 
harmony  with. the  sentiment  of  the  passage,  his  emotional 
interpretation  was  equally  poor.  A  farther  careful  study  of  the 
text  to  improve  the  movement  has  generally  resulted  in  the 
improvement  of  the  emotional  expression. 

Mr.  Speaker:  The  mingled  tones  of  sorrow,  like  the  voice  of 
many  waters,  have  come  unto  us  from  a  sister  State — Massachu- 
setts— weeping  for  her  honored  son.  The  State  I  have  the  honor  in 
part  to  represent  once  endured,  with  yours,  a  common  suffering, 
battled  for  a  common  cause,  and  rejoiced  in  a  common  triumph. 
Surely,  then,  it  is  meet  that  in  this  the  day  of  your  affliction  we 
should  mingle  our  griefs. 

Search  creation  round,  where  can  you  find  a  country  that  pre- 
sents so  sublime  a  view,  so  interesting  an  anticipation?  Who  shall 
say  for  what  purpose  mysterious  Providence  may  not  have  designed 
her  I  Who  shall  say  that  when  in  its  follies  or  its  crimes,  the  Old 
World  may  have  buried  all  the  pride  of  its  power,  and  all  the 
pomp  of  its  civilization,  human  nature  may  not  find  its  destined 
renovation  in  the  New !  When  its  temples  and  its  trophies  shall 
have  mouldered  into  dust, — when  the  glories  of  its  name  shall  be 
but  the  legend  of  tradition,  and  the  light  of  its  achievements  live 
only  in  song,  philosophy  will  revive  again  in  the  sky  of  her  Frank- 
lin, and  glory  rekindle  at  the  urn  of  her  Washington. 

Often  have  I  swept  backward,  in  imagination,  six  thousand 
years,  and  stood  beside  our  great  ancestor,  as  he  gazed  for  the  first 
time  upon  the  going  down  of  the  sun.  What  strange  sensations 
must  have  swept  through  his  bewildered  mind,  as  he  watched  the 
last  departing  ray  of  the  sinking  orb,  unconscious  whether  he 
should  ever  behold  its  return. 


22  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Wrapped  in  a  maze  of  thought,  strange  and  startling,  he  suffers 
his  eye  to  linger  long  about  the  point  at  which  the  sun  has  slowly 
faded  from  view.  A  mysterious  darkness  creeps  over  the  face  of 
Nature ;  the  beautiful  scenes  of  earth  are  slowly  fading,  one  by  one, 
from  his  dimmed  vision. 

You  think  me  a  fanatic  to-night,  for  you  read  history,  not  with 
your  eyes,  but  with  your  prejudices.  But  fifty  years  hence,  when 
Truth  gets  a  hearing,  the  Muse  of  History  will  put  Phocion  for  the 
Greek,  and  Brutus  for  the  Roman,  Hampden  for  England,  La  Fay^ 
ette  for  France,  choose  Washington  as  the  bright,  consummate 
flower  of  our  earlier  civilization,  and  John  Brown  as  the  ripe  fruit 
of  our  noonday,  then,  dipping  her  pen  in  the  sunlight,  will  write 
in  the  clear  blue,  above  them  all,  the  name  of  the  soldier,  the 
statesman,  the  martyr,  Toussaint  L'Ouverture. 

Figure  to  yourself  a  cataract  like  that  of  Niagara,  poured  in 
foaming  grandeur,  not  merely  over  one  great  precipice  of  two  hun- 
dred feet,  but  over  the  successive  ridgy  precipices  of  two  or  three 
thousand,  in  the  face  of  a  mountain  eleven  thousand  feet  high,  and 
tumbling,  crashing,  thundering  down  with  a  continuous  din  of  far 
greater  sublimity  than  the  sound  of  the  grandest  cataract.  The 
roar  of  the  falling  mass  begins  to  be  heard  the  moment  it  is  loosened 
from  the  mountain ;  it  pours  on  with  the  sound  of  a  vast  body  of 
rushing  water ;  then  comes  the  first  great  concussion,  a  booming 
crash  of  thunders,  breaking  on  the  still  air  in  mid-heaven;  your 
breath  is  suspended,  and  you  listen  and  look ;  the  mighty  glittering 
mass  shoots  headlong  over  the  main  precipice,  and  the  fall  is  so 
great  that  it  produces  to  the  eye  that  impression  of  dread  majestic 
slowness  of  which  I  have  spoken,  though  it  is  doubtless  more  rapid 
than  Niagara.  But  if  you  should  see  the  cataract  of  Niagara  itself 
coming  down  five  thousand  feet  above  you  in  the  air,  there  would 
be  the  same  impression.  The  image  remains  in  the  mind,  and  can 
never  fade  from  it ;  it  is  as  if  you  had  seen  an  alabaster  cataract 
from  heaven.  The  sound  is  far  more  sublime  than  that  of  Niagara, 
because  of  the  preceding  stillness  in  those  Alpine  solitudes.  In  the 
midst  of  such  silence  and  solemnity,  from  out  the  bosom  of  those 
glorious,  glittering  forms  of  nature,  comes  that  rushing,  crashing 
thunder-burst  of  sound  I    If  it  were  not  that  your  soul,  through  the 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  23 

eye,  is  as  filled  and  fixed  with  the  sublimity  of  the  vision  as, 
through  the  sense  of  hearing,  with  that  of  the  audible  report, 
methinks  you  would  wish  to  bury  your  face  in  your  hands,  and  fall 
prostrate,  as  at  the  voice  of  the  Eternal. 


How  lovely  are  thy  dwellings  fair ! 

O  Lord  of  Hosts,  how  dear 
The  pleasant  tabernacles  are 

Where  thou  dost  dwell  so  near ! 

My  soul  doth  long  and  almost  die        ♦ 

Thy  courts,  O  Lord,  to  see. 
My  heart  and  flesh  aloud  do  cry, 

O  living  God,  for  thee. 

There  even  the  sparrow,  freed  from  wrong, 

Hath  found  a  house  of  rest ; 
The  swallow  there,  to  lay  her  young. 

Hath  built  her  brooding  nest ; 

Even  by  thy  altars.  Lord  of  Hosts, 

They  find  their  safe  abode ; 
And  home  they  fly  from  round  the  coasts 

Towards  thee,  my  King,  my  God. 

The  following  will  illustrate  fast  movement.  Let  there  be 
no  attempt  to  accelerate  the  speed,  but  let  the  thought  and 
emotion  themselves  govern  that.  No  examples  are  given  to 
illustrate  moderate  time,  since  the  student  gets  sufficient 
practice  of  this  kind  in  almost  everything  he  reads. 

Gloriously,  Max!  gloriously!  There  were  sixty  horses  in  the 
field,  all  mettle  to  the  bone ;  the  start  was  a  picture — away  we  went 
in  a  cloud — pell-mell — helter-skelter — the  fools  first,  as  usual,  using 
themselves  up.  We  soon  pass  them — first  your  Kitty,  then  my 
Blueskin,  and  Craven's  colt  last.  Then  came  the  tug — Kitty 
skimmed  the  walls — Blueskin  flew  over  the  fences — the  colt  neck- 


M  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

and-neck,  and  half  a  mile  to  run — at  last  the  colt  balked  a  leap  and 
went  wild.  Kitty  and  I  had  it  all  to  ourselves — she  was  three 
lengths  ahead  as  we  breasted  the  last  wall,  six  feet,  if  an  inch,  and 
a  ditch  on  the  other  side.  Now,  for  the  first  time,  I  gave  Blueskin 
his  head — Ha,  ha!  Away  he  flew  like  a  thunderbolt — over  went 
the  filly — I  over  the  same  spot,  leaving  Kitty  in  the  ditch — walked 
the  steeple,  eight  miles  in  thirty  minutes,  and  scarcely  turned  a 
hair. 

Nice  clothes  I  get,  too,  traipsing  through  weather  like  this !  My 
gown  and  bonnet  will  be  spoiled.  Needn't  I  wear  'em,  then? 
Indeed,  Mr.  Caudle,  I  shall  wear  'em.  No,  sir!  I'm  not  going  out 
a  dowdy  to  please  you  or  anybody  else.  Gracious  knows !  it  isn't 
often  that  I  step  over  the  threshold. 

Before  a  quarter  pole  was  pass'd, 

Old  Hiram  said,  **He's  going  fast." 

Long  ere  the  quarter  was  a  half. 

The  chuckling  crowd  had  ceased  to  laugh; 

Tighter  his  frightened  jockey  clung 

As  in  a  mighty  stride  he  swung. 

The  gravel  flying  in  his  track, 

His  neck  stretched  out,  his  ears  laid  back, 

His  tail  extended  all  the  while 

Behind  him  like  a  rat-tail  file ! 

Off  went  a  shoe, — away  it  spun, 

Shot  like  a  bullet  from  a  gun ; 

The  quaking  jockey  shapes  a  prayer 

From  scraps  of  oaths  he  used  to  swear ; 

He  drops  his  whip,  he  drops  his  rein, 

He  clutches  fiercely  for  the  mane ; 

He'll  lose  his  hold, — he  sways  and  reels, — 

He'll  slide  beneath  those  trampling  heels! 

The  knees  of  many  a  horseman  quake, 

The  flowers  on  many  a  bonnet  shake. 

And  shouts  arise  from  left  and  right, 

"Stick  on !  stick  on !"     "Hould  tight !  hould  tighti 

Cling  round  his  neck;  and  don't  let  go, — 

That  pace  can't  hold, — there!  steady!  whoa!" 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  25 

Then  methought  I  heard  a  mellow  sound, 

Gathering  up  from  all  the  lower  ground ; 

Narrowing  in  to  where  they  sat  assembled, 

Low  voluptuous  music  winding  trembled, 

Wov'n  in  circles.    They  that  heard  it  sigh'd, 

Panted  hand- in-hand  with  faces  pale. 

Swung  themselves,  and  in  low  tones  replied ; 

Till  the  foimtain  spouted,  showering  wide 

Sleet  of  diamond-drift  and  pearly  hail. 

Then  the  music  touch' d  the  gates  and  died; 

Rose  again  from  where  it  seem'd  to  fail, 

Storm' d  in  orbs  of  song,  a  growing  gale ; 

Till  thronging  in  and  in,  to  where  they  waited, 

As  'twere  a  hundred-throated  nightingale. 

The  strong  tempestuous  treble  throbb'd  and  palpitated ; 

Ran  into  its  giddiest  whirl  of  sound. 

Caught  the  sparkles,  and  in  circles, 

Purple  gauzes,  golden  hazes,  liquid  mazes. 

Flung  the  torrent  rainbow  round. 

Then  they  started  from  their  places. 

Moved  with  violence,  changed  in  hue. 

Caught  each  other  with  wild  grimaces. 

Half -invisible  to  the  view. 

Wheeling  with  precipitate  paces 

To  the  melody,  till  they  flew. 

Hair,  and  eyes,  and  limbs,  and  faces. 

Twisted  hard  in  fierce  embraces. 

Like  to  Furies,  like  to  Graces, 

Dash'd  together  in  blinding  dew; 

Till,  kill'd  with  some  luxurious  agony, 

The  nerve-dissolving  melody 

Flutter' d  headlong  from  the  sky. 

Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  any  one  of  the  foregoing 
extracts  is  to  be  read  in  uniformly  slow  or  uniformly  fast  time ; 
that  will  change  with  each  variation  in  the  importance  of  the 
thought.  Without  attempting  to  force  any  interpretation 
upon  the  student,  an  illustration  is  appended  in  which  he 


26  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

may  note  how  the  relative  importance  of  the  ideas  affects  the 
rate  of  movement  in  the  various  phrases. 


Med.  Wherefore  rejoice?    What  conquest  brings  he  home? 

Med.  What  tributaries  follow  him  to  Rome, 

Fast.  To  grace  in  captive  bonds  his  chariot  wheels? 

Slow.  You  blocks,  you  stones,   you  worse  than    senseless 

things ! 
Very  slow.        O  you  hard  hearts,  you  cruel  men  of  Rome, 
Med.  and  fast.  Knew  you  not  Pompey?    Many  a  time  and  oft 
Fast.  Have  you  climb' d  up  to  walls  and  battlements, 

Fast.  To  towers  and  windows,  yea,  to  chimney -tops, 

Med.  Your  infants  in  your  arms,  and  there  have  sat 

Med.  The  livelong  day,  with  patient  expectation, 

Med.  To  see  great  Pompey  pass  the  streets  of  Rome : 

Med.  And  when  you  saw  his  chariot  but  appear, 

Fast.  Have  you  not  made  an  universal  shout. 

Fast.  That  Tiber  trembled  underneath  her  banks, 

Fast.  •    To  hear  the  replication  of  your  sounds 
Fast.  Made  in  her  concave  shores? 

Slow.  And  do  you  now  put  on  your  best  attire? 

Med.  And  do  you  now  cull  out  a  holiday? 

Med.  And  do  you  now  strew  flowers  in  his  way, 

Fast.  That  comes  in  triumph  over  Pompey's  blood? 

Begone ! 
Med.  Run  to  your  houses,  fall  upon  your  knees, 

Slow.  Pray  to  the  gods  to  intermit  the  plague 

Slow.  That  needs  must  light  on  this  ingratitude. 


It  must  be  evident  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  suggest  by  a 
word  the  rate  of  speed  at  which  one  should  render  a  given  line. 
Fast  and  slow  are  relative  terms.  Certain  speakers  would 
consider  slow  reading  what  another  would  consider  moderate. 
Yet  there  is  on  the  whole  a  pretty  general  agreement  as  to  the 
use  of  these  terms.  With  this  statement,  we  may  proceed  to 
an  analysis  of  the  selection  to  justify  the  marking. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  27 

The  citizens  of  Eome  have  just  declared  to  the  tribunes, 
enemies  of  Caesar,  why  the  people  are  making  holiday:  ''We 
make  holiday  to  see  Caesar,  and  to  rejoice  in  his  triumph." 
Whereupon  Marullus,  one  of  the  tribunes,  begins  his  speech, 
endeavoring  to  convince  the  mob  that  there  is  absolutely 
nothing  Caesar  has  done  to  merit  this  ovation.  After  the 
word  "tributaries,"  the  time  is  accelerated  for  the  reason  that 
all  that  follows,  to  the  end  of  the  query,  is  virtually  repetitious, 
being  included  in  the  idea  of  tributaries.  The  indicated 
marking  of  lines  four  and  five  needs  no  justification.  "Knew 
you  not  Pompey?"  is  a  question  containing  reproach.  The 
latter  element  will  tend  to  retard  the  movement.  "Many  a 
time  and  oft"  is  repetitious;  he  is  simply  reminding  them  of 
well-known  facts.  When  the  speaker  reaches  "yea,  to 
chimney -tops,"  the  importance  of  the  idea  is  at  once  manifest 
in  the  slower  time,  which  continues  to  "arms,"  when  it  again 
changes  to  medium  and  fast.  The  student  may  find  it  a  good 
drill  to  examine  the  remaining  lines,  to  see  whether  he  agrees 
with  or  differs  from  the  time-markings. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  the  element  of  time 
without  regard  to  details.  It  is  now  necessary  to  note  that 
time  may  be  affected  in  two  ways :  by  quantity  and  by  pause. 
By  dwelling  upon  the  words  the  time  may  be  retarded,  and 
the  same  effect  may  be  produced  by  frequent  or  long  pauses. 
In  the  former  instance,  the  mind  is  dwelling' upon  the  thought 
while  the  voice  is  giving  it  expression ;  and  in  the  latter,  the 
mind  is  dwelling  upon  the  idea  or  the  collateral  thought 
between  the  words  or  groups.  The  two  methods  may  be 
illustrated  in  the  following  extract:  "Our  Father,  which 
art  in  Heaven,  hallowed  be  Thy  name."  One  may  read 
this  with  but  one  pause,  after  "Heaven";  or  he  may  ap- 
propriately pause  after  "Father,"  "Heaven,"  and  "hal- 
lowed." 


28  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

GROUPING 

Study  carefully  the  following  extract,  and  then  read  it 
aloud  : 

But  when  the  gray  dawn  stole  into  his  tent. 
He  rose,  and  clad  himself,  and  girt  his  sword, 
And  took  his  horseman's  cloak,  and  left  his  tent, 
And  went  abroad  into  the  cold  wet  fog, 
Through  the  dim  camp  to  Peran-Wisa's  tent. 

We  notice  a  tendency  to  break  up  the  sentence  into  groups 
of  varying  length.  This  tendency  is  more  or  less  instinctive ; 
and  while  there  may  be  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
number  of  groups,  yet  it  must  be  conceded  that  there  is  a 
definite  underlying  principle,  which  admits  of  no  exception. 
For  instance,  one  might  read  the  fourth  line  as  if  it  were  but 
one  group;  another,  with  virtually  the  same  idea  in  mind, 
might  divide  it  into  two  groups  at  the  word  ''abroad."  On 
the  other  hand,  no  one  would  read  in  this  way:  "And  went 
abroad  into  the" — "cold  wet  fog  through"— "the  dim  camp  to 
Peran-Wisa's  tent." 

Eead  the  following  sentences  aloud  carefully,  and  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  same  principle  of  grouping  obtains : 

The  star  of  Napoleon  was  just  rising  to  its  zenith  as  that  of 
Washington  was  passing  away. 

The  name  and  memory  of  Washington  will  travel  with  the 
Silver  Queen  of  Heaven  through  sixty  degrees  of  longitude,  nor 
part  company  with  her  till  she  walks  in  her  brightness  through  the 
Golden  Gate  of  California,  and  passes  serenely  on  to  hold  midnight 
court  with  her  Australian  Stars. 

The  reading  of  these  illustrations  shows  that  grouping  is 
entirely  independent  of  punctuation.  It  is  true  that  the  spoken 
group  may  coincide  with  the  grammatical  group,  but  that 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  29 

is  merely  an  accident.  We  group  as  we  do,  not  because  of 
punctuation  marks,  but  for  more  fundamental  and  less  con- 
ventional reasons.  The  function  of  the  punctuation  mark  is 
to  assist  the  reader  in  getting  the  author's  thought.  The 
following  example  will  illustrate  this : 

The  slaves  who  were  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  had  been  captured 
in  Africa.       *^ 

It  is  plain  that  the  clause  introduced  by  *'who"  is  a 
restrictive  one,  and  implies  that  there  were  other  slaves  on  the 
vessel  besides  those  mentioned.  If  we  now  insert  commas 
after  ''slaves"  and  "vessel,"  the  sentence  becomes  equivalent 
to.  The  slaves,  and  they  were  all  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel,  had 
been  captured  in  Africa. 

!N"ote,  again,  how  the  sense  would  be  obscured  if  the  author 
had  omitted  the  comma  after  "all"  in  this  extract: 

For  we  are  all,  like  swimmers  in  the  sea, 
Poised  on  the  top  of  a  huge  wave  of  fate. 

We  are  not  like  swimmers  in  the  sea,  but  poised  on  the 
top  of  a  huge  wave  of  fate,  as  swimmers  in  the  sea  are  poised 
on  waves  of  water. 

To  prove  that  grouping  is  independent  of  punctuation,  let 
the  student  read  aloud  the  following  illustrations : 

But,  look  you,  Cassius, 
The  angry  spot  doth  glow  on  Caesar's  brow. 

I  saw  Mark  Antony  offer  him  a  crown ;  and,  as  I  told  you,  he 
put  it  by  once;  but,  for  all  that,  to  my  thinking  he  would  have 
had  it  .  .  .  and,  for  mine  own  part,  I  dare  not  laugh. 

In  the  two  preceding  extracts,  the  reader  would  hardly 
pause  after  "But,"  "you,"  and  the  "and's." 


30  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

While  we  are  on  the  subject  of  punctuation,  it  may  be 
advisable  to  look  at  a  few  examples  in  which  the  understanding 
of  the  force  of  punctuation  vitally  affects  the  reading.  In 
these  lines  from  Tennyson's  Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington^  students  carelessly  connect  the  phrase  '*sad 
and  slow"  with  *'Lead  out  the  pageant."  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  a  moment's  thought  must  show  us  that  the  opening 
sentence  is  complete  in  itself,  and  that  "sad  and  slow"  modi' 
fies^'go."  A  careful  reading  of  the  text  would  reveal  this, 
but  a  mind  that  had  been  trained  to  observe  these  matters  of 
punctuation  would  have  observed  at  once  that  the  colon  sepa- 
rated the  two  ideas,  and,  further,  that  the  word  modified  by 
"sad  and  slow"  was  to  be  sought  further  on.     Here  is  the 


Lead  out  the  pageant :  sad  and  slow, 

As  fits  a  universal  woe, 

Let  the  long  long  procession  go, 

And  let  the  sorrowing  crowd  about  it  grow, 

And  let  the  mournful  martial  musio  blow, 

The  last  great  Englishman  is  low. 

Another  passage,  from  The  Merchant  of  Venice^  is  equally 
interesting  and  instructive.     Shylock  says : 

Yet  his  means  are  in  supposition ;  he  hath  an  argosy  bound  to 
Tripolis,  another  to  the  Indies;  I  understand  moreover  upon  the 
Rialto,  he  hath  a  third  to  Mexico,  a  fourth  for  England ;  and  other 
ventures  he  hath,  squandered  abroad. 

Seven  students  out  of  ten  read  the  last  sentence  as  if  "hath 
squandered"  were  the  verb.  The  comma  after  "hath"  shows 
this  to  be  a  mistake,  and,  moreover,  denotes  a  shade  of  mean- 
ing that  is  very  significant  of  Shylock 's  character. 

The  object  in  giving  these  illustrations  has  been  to  free 
the  student  from  a  very  common  misconception  that  the  group 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  31 

is  determined  by  the  punctuation  mark,  and,  further,  to  draw 
his  attention  to  the  necessity  of  scanning  the  punctuation  with 
the  utmost  care.  As  a  rule,  the  words  are  in  themselves 
sufficient  index  of  the  author's  meaning;  but,  as  in  the  cases 
cited,  there  are  times  when  carelessness  regarding  punctuation 
leads  to  serious  and  ridiculous  misunderstanding.  The 
punctuation  will  make  the  sense  clear  wherever  such  help  is 
necessary;  but  after  that,  as  far  as  grouping  is  concerned,  the 
student  need  give  it  no  further  attention.  In  order  to  impress 
the  fact  that  grouping  and  punctuation  are  independent  of 
each  other,  the  following  examples  should  be  thoughtfully 
considered  and  then  read  aloud : 

So  every  bondman  in  his  own  hand  bears 
The  power  to  cancel  his  captivity. 

And  as  the  greatest  only  are, 
In  his  simplicity  sublime. 

Note  that  *'only"  modifies  '^greatest,"  and  hence  should 
be  separated  from  ''are."  If  the  sentence  were  prose,  it 
would  read,  "And  as  only  the  greatest  are,"  in  which  case 
there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  the  reading.  As  it  is,  we  must 
bring  out  the  relation  by  careful  grouping. 

The  first  object  of  a  free  people  is  the  preservation  of  their 
liberty ;  and!  liberty  is  only  to  be  preserved  by  maintaining  consti- 
tutional restraints  and  just  divisions  of  political  power. 

Soon  after  William  H.  Harrison's  nomination,  a  writer  in  one  of 
the  leading  administration  papers  spoke  of  his  "log  cabin"  and  his 
use  of  **hard  cider,"  by  way  of  sneer  and  reproach.  .  .  . 

It  did  not  happen  to  me  to  be  born  in  a  log  cabin,  but  my  elder 
brothers  and  sisters  were  born  in  a  log  cabin,  raised  amid  the 
snowdrifts  of  New  Hampshire,  at  a  period  so  early  that,  when  the 
smoke  rose  from  its  rude  chimney  and  curled  over  the  frozen  hills. 


32  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

there  was  no  similar  evidence  of  a  white  man's  habitation  between 
it  and  the  settlements  on  the  rivers  of  Canada. 

The  following  example  is  an  excellent  one  to  illustrate  the 
necessity  of  paying  careful  attention  to  grouping : 

Of  Man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat. 
Sing,  Heavenly  Muse,  that  on  the  secret  top 
Of  Oreb,  or  of  Sinai,  didst  inspire 
That  shepherd,  who  first  taught  the  chosen  seed, 
In  the  beginning  how  the  Heav'ns  and  Earth 
Rose  out  of  Chaos. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  spirit  did  not  teach  the  shep- 
herd "in  the  beginning,"  but  ''how  the  Heav'ns  and  Earth 
rose"  in  the  beginning,  ''out  of  Chaos."  If  we  turn  this 
last  sentence  into  prose,  it  will  assist  us  in  getting  the  poet's 
meaning  and  consequently  in  giving  the  correct  rendition. 

THE    PAUSE    AS   AK    EXPRESSIVE   ELEMENT 

In  the  study  of  grouping,  the  student  noticed  that  the 
groups  were  separated  by  pauses  of  varying  duration.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  pauses  were  the  results  of  the  grouping  rather 
than  that  the  grouping  was  the  result  of  the  pauses.  In  other 
words,  the  pause  could  hardly  be  called  expressive. 

We  are  now  to  study  the  pause  as  an  expressive  element. 
No  definite  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  pausing ;  that  is  deter- 
mined, to  a  large  extent,  by  the  temperament,  the  nature  of  the 
thought,  and  the  occasion.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  the  pause  is  not  meri^  silence.  A  very  little  obser- 
vation will  show  us  that  while  the  voice  ceases,  the  thought 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  33 

continues  to  manifest  itself  in  pantomimic  expression.  What 
is  it,  then,  that  determines  the  pause?  The  answer  has  a 
twofold  aspect.  First,  pausing  is  an  instinctive  process,  and 
comes  as  the  result  of  certain  psychological  processes.  We 
think  in  ideas,  not  in  individual  words,  and  these  ideas  are 
separated  in  our  minds  by  pauses  of  varying  length.  We  do 
not  stop  to  consider  whether  or  no  we  shall  pause  between  the 
phrases  of  a  sentence;  the  pause,  as  has  been  stated,  comes 
instinctively,  and  is  a  manifestation  of  psycho-physiological 
action.  In  the  second  place,  the  pause  is  made  as  the  result, 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  of  collMe£ai_.ibiaking.  In  other 
words,  any  given  idea  may  call  up  another  train  of  thought, 
with  which  the  mind  may  engage  itself,  and  such  engagement 
would  find  actual  expression  in  the  pause.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  collateral  thinking  may  take  the  mind 
backward  or  forward.  According  to  the  amount  of  this  col- 
lateral thinking  will  be  the  duration  of  the  pause. 

An  extract  from  the  play  of  Julius  Caesar  will  illustrate 
this  point.  In  the  fifth  act,  Brutus  and  Cassius  have  taken 
their  "everlasting  farewell,"  and  Brutus  ends  the  interview 
with  these  words : 

Why  then,  lead  on. — O,  that  a  man  might  know 
The  end  of  this  day's  business,  ere  it  come! 
But  it  sufficeth,  that  the  day  will  end, 
And  then  the  end  is  known. 

The  first  four  words  of  this  speech  are  addressed  to  the 
onlookers.  The  word  ''on"  takes  the  mind  of  the  thoughtful 
and  considerate  leader  to  the  battlefield  where  the  fate  of 
Rome  is  to  be  decided.  He  perceives  that  the  future  of  his 
beloved  city  hangs  trembling  in  the  balance.  The  appearance 
on  the  preceding  night  of  the  ghost  of  Caesar,  warning  him 
that  it  will  see  him  at  Philippi,  fills  Brutus  with  apprehension. 


34  '    READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  then,  how  many  of  his  followers,  now  so  ready  to  do  bat- 
tle under  his  standard,  will,  ere  night,  lie  cold  in  death  upon 
the  bloody  field!  All  this  and  more  passes  through  his 
mind,  and  his  solicitude  and  apprehension  manifest  themselves 
in  his  features  and  in  his  body.  Then  even  the  stoical  Brutus 
cannot  repress  his  anxiety,  which  we  note  in  the  words,  "0, 
that  a  man  might  know."  This  extract,  therefore,  well  illus- 
trates what  was  said  above, — that  the  pause,  as  we  here  con- 
sider it,  is  not  mere  silence,  but  cessation  of  voice  while  the 
expression  continues  in  the  body.  In  the  second  place,  it  is 
plain  that  the  collateral  thinking  determines  the  length  of  the 
pause. 

Another  element  that  determines  the  duration  of  the  pause 
is  the  distance  apart  of  the  thoughts  separated  by  the  pause. 
Let  us  illustrate  this : 

If  this  law  were  put  upon  our  statute  books  there  would  not 
be,  five  years  from  to-day,  a  dissenting  voice  raised  against  it  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

Let  it  not  be  understood  that  there  are  no  occasions  when  the 
phrase  ''from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific"  would  not  be  uttered 
with  scarcely  any  pause  after  Atlantic.  This  phrase,  and 
others  like  it,  may  have  become  a  mere  commonplace  to 
describe  extent ;  but  in  such  a  passage  as  the  above,  where  the 
speaker  is  hyperbolically  expressive,  he  no  doubt  intends  to 
convey  the  idea  that  not  one  objection  would  be  heard  even  in 
all  the  three  thousand  miles  between  the  oceans.  If  the  stu- 
dent u^ill  stop  for  a  moment  to  analyze  his  own  consciousness 
while  uttering  this  sentence,  he  will  scarcely  fail  to  see  the 
vast  extent  of  territory  separating  the  two  oceans. 

Many  writers  on  the  subject  have  given  emotion  as  a 
reason  for  the  pause.  Strictly  speaking,  however,  emotion^ 
as  distinct  from  thinking,  seldom  or  never  is  the  cause  of  the 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  35 

pause,  unless  it  completely  choke  the  utterance.  In  the 
example  quoted  above  from  Julius  Caesar  there  is  no  doubt 
considerable  emotion  during  the  pause ;  but  it  is  the  thought, 
and  not  the  emotion  ai^ising  out  of  it,  that  leads  to  the  silence. 
The  following  excerpt  is  from  the  speech  of  Satan  in 
Paradise  Lost.  Satan  has  been  cursing  his  lot  and  the 
author  of  his  punishment.  Finally,  his  judgment  tells  him 
that  he  himself,  and  not  God,  is  responsible  for  the  downfall. 
The  pauses,  indicated  by  the  vertical  lines,  are  suggestive  of 
the  proper  rendition.  Of  course,  the  pauses  vary  in  duration 
from  the  briefest  cessation  of  voice  to  pauses  of  considerable 
length : 

Nay,  I  curs' d  be  thou;  |  since  against  his  |  thy  will 

Chose  freely  |  what  it  now  |  so  justly  rues.  | 

Me  I  miserable !  which  way  shall  I  fly 

Infinite  wrath,  |  and  infinite  despair?  | 

Which  way  I  fiy  |  is  Hell ;  |  myself  |  am  Hell ;  | 

And  in  the  lowest  deep  |  a  lower  deep  | 

Still  threat 'ning  to  devour  me  |  opens  wide  | 

To  which  the  Hell  I  suffer  |  seems  a  Heav'n.  | 

But  say  I  could  repent  |  and  could  obtain  | 

By  act  of  grace  |  my  former  state,  |  how  soon' 

Would  height  |  recall  high  thoughts,  |  how  soon  unsay  | 

What  feign 'd  submission  |  swore.  | 

This  I  knows  my  punisher ;  |  therefore  |  as  far 

From  granting  |  he,  |  as  I  |  from  begging  |  peace. 

The  student  should  practice  the  following  examples  until  he 
perceives  clearly  the  force  of  the  preceding  principles.!  The 
group  is  the  thought  unit\  and  the  proper  rendition  of  the 
sentence  depends  upon  our  grasp  of  the  units  that  compose  it. 
Hence,  a  conscientious  study  of  the  phrasing  will  lead  not 
only  to  careful  grouping,  but  to  a  grasp  of  the  thought  in  its 
entirety  that  cannot  fail  to  affect  for  good  the  reading  of  the 
whole  selection : 


36  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

.     .     .     .     and  there  were  drawn 
Upon  a  heap  a  hundred  ghastly  women  \ 
Transformed  with  their  fearl  who  swore  they  saw 
Men  all  in  fir^  walk  up  and  down  the  streets. 

He  were  no  lion,  were  not  Romany,  hinds. 

Those  that^ith  haste  will  make  a  mighty  fire  ' 
Begin  it  with  weak  straws. 

A  piece  of  work  that  will  make  sick  men  Avhole. 

Danger  knows  full  well 
That  Caesar  is  more  dangerous  than  he. 
We  are  two  lions  litter' d  in  one  day, 
And  I  the  elder  and  more  terrible. 

No  morej  in  soldier  fashion  will  he  greet 
With  lifted  hand  the  gazer  in  the  street. 

Before  the  starry  threshold  of  Jove's  court 
My  mansion  is,|  where  those  immortal  shapes 
Of  bright  aerial  spirits  lived  inspher'd 
In  regions  mild  of  calm  and  serene  air. 

Whether  'tis  nobler  in  the  mind  to  suffer 
The  slings  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune, 
Or  to  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles, 
And  by  opposing  end  them? 

And  the  sunset  paled  and  warmed  once  more/ 
With  a  softer,  tenderer  afterglow ; 

In  the  east  was  moonrise  with  boats  off-shore ; 
And  sails  in  the  distance  drifting  slow. 

O  may  I  join  the  choir  invisible 

Of  those  immortal  dead  who  live  again 

In  the  minds  made  better  by  their  presence : 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  37 

Moses,  who  spake  with  God  as  with  his  friend)^ 
And  ruled  his  people  with  the  twofold  power  / 
Of  wisdom  that  can  dare  and  still  be  meek, 
Was  writing  his  last  word,  the  sacred  name 
Unutterable  of  that  Eternal  Will 
Which  was  and  is  and  evermore  shall  be. 

We  stood  far  off  and  saw  the  angels  lift 
His  corpse  aloft  until  they  seemed  a  star 
That  burnt  itself  away  within  the  sky. 

Messer  Bernado  del  Nero  was  as  inexorable  as  Romola  had 
expected  in  his  advice  that  the  marriage  should  be  deferred  till 
Easter,  and  in  this  matter  Bardo  was  entirely  under  the  ascen- 
dency of  his  sagacious  and  practical  friend.  Nevertheless,  Ber- 
nado himself,  though  he  was  as  far  as  ever  from  any  susceptibility 
to  the  personal  fascination  in  Tito  which  was  felt  by  others,  could 
not  altogether  resist  that  argument  of  success  which  is  always 
powerful  with  men  of  the  world. 

Some  of  the  softening  effects  of  advancing  age  have  struck  me 
very  much  in  what  I  have  heard  or  seen  here  and  elsewhere.  I 
just  now  spoTie  of  the  sweetening  process  that  authors  undergo. 
Do  you  know  that  in  the  gradual  passage  from  maturity  to  help- 
lessness the  harshest  characters  sometimes  have  a  period  in  which 
they  are  gentle  and  placid  as  young  children?  I  have  heard  it  said, 
but  I  cannot  be  sponsor  for  its  truth,  that  the  famous  chieftain, 
Lochiel,  was  rocked  in  a  cradle  like  a  baby,  in  his  old  age.  An  old 
man,  whose  studies  had  been  of  the  severest  scholastic  kind,  used  to 
love  to  hear  little  nursery  stories  read  over  and  over  to  him. 
One  who  saw  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  his  last  years  describes 
him  as  very  gentle  in  his  aspect  and  demeanor.  I  remember  a 
person  of  singularly  stern  and  lofty  bearing  who  became  remarkably 
gracious  and  easy  in  all  his  ways  in  the  later  period  of  his  life. 

Whatever  Lionel  had  said  to  his  wife  that  evening  she  had 
found  something  to  say  to  him :  that  Laura  could  see  though  not 
so  much  from  any  change  in  the  simple  expression  of  his  little  red 
face  and  in  the  vain  bustle  of  his  existence  as  from  the  grand 
manner  in  which  Selina  now  carried  herself.     She  was  "smarter"' 


38  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

than  ever  and  her  waist  was  smaller  and  her  back  straighter  and 
the  fall  of  her  shoulders  finer;  her  long  eyes  were  more  oddly- 
charming  and  the  extreme  detachment  of  her  elbows  from  her  sides 
conduced  still  more  to  the  exhibition  of  her  beautiful  arms. 

At  the  moment  when  death  so  suddenly  stayed  his  course  the 
greatness  of  Henry  the  Fifth  had  reached  its  highest  point.  He 
had  won  the  Church  by  his  orthodoxy,  the  nobles  by  his  warlike 
prowess,  the  whole  people  by  his  revival  of  the  glories  of  Crecy  and 
Poitiers.  In  France  his  cool  policy  had  transformed  him  from  a 
foreign  conqueror  into  a  legal  heir  to  the  crown;  his  title  of 
Regent  and  of  successor  to  the  throne  rested  on  the  formal  recog- 
nition of  the  estates  of  the  realm;  and  his  progress  to  the  very 
moment  of  his  death  promised  a  speedy  mastery  of  the  whole 
country.  But  the  glory  of  Agincourt  and  the  genius  of  Henry  the 
Fifth  hardly  veiled  at  the  close  of  his  reign  the  weakness  and  humili- 
ation of  the  Crown  when  the  succession  passed  to  his  infant  son. 


PEDAGOGICAL    ASPECTS 

From  what  has  been  stated,  it  must  be  clear  that  drills  in 
fast  time  or  slow  time  are  useless  and  fraught  with  much 
danger  of  affectation.  Any  of  us  can  read  slowly  or  rapidly; 
that  is  merely  a  matter  of  mechanics.  The  object  to  be 
attained  is  the  development  of  such  power  of  discrimination 
in  the  child  that  the  value  of  each  phrase  and  sentence  shall 
be  carefully  determined ;  and  then  the  degree  of  extent,  depth, 
sublimity  or  grandeur  of  the  thought  will  determine  the  rate 
of  movement.  Training  in  Time  for  its  own  sake  is  valueless. 
From  the  very  beginning,  the  teacher  must  use  Time  as  a  test, 
as  a  standard  of  criticism ;  and  all  corrections  must  be  made 
with  a  clear  perception  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of  the 
psychology  of  Time.  If  a  child  read  too  rapidly,  it  is  because 
his  mind  is  not  sufficiently  occupied  with  the  thought ;  if  he 
read  too  slowly,  it  is  because  he  does  not  get  the  words ;  or 
^-cause  he  is  temperamentally  slow ;  or  because,  and  this  is  the 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  39 

most  likely  explanation,  lie  is  making  too  much  of  a  small 
idea. 

There  is  excuse  for  drills  in  Time  only  when  a  pupil 
reads  everything  at  about  the  same  rate.  In  such  a  case,  in 
upper  grades,  the  teacher  may  choose  certain  selections  for  the 
proper  expression  of  which  approximately  fast  or  slow  move- 
ment, as  the  case  may  be,  would  be  required.  Then  let  the 
teacher,  through  careful  analysis  and  question,  lead  the  child  to 
understand  the  passages  as  the  teacher  understands  them,  and 
the  proper  rate  of  utterance  will  follow.  This  process  may  seem 
slow ;  but  let  us  bear  in  mind  that  we  are  dealing  with  funda- 
mental principles  of  thinking,  and  too  much  time  cannot  be 
spent  in  building  our  foundations  strong  and  solid.  Further- 
more, if  the  rate  of  utterance  is  not  the  instinctive  manifes- 
tation of  the  child's  thought  measurement,  it  is  nothing  at  all. 
To  tell  him  to  read  fast  or  slowly  is  but  to  make  him  affected, 
and  incidentally,  even  if  unconsciously,  to  impress  upon  him 
that  reading  is  a  matter  of  mechanics  and  not  of  thought- 
getting  and  thought -giving. 

In  order  to  teach  grouping,  various  rules  have  been  laid 
down.  Pupils  have  committed  a  long  list  of  these  without 
much  practical  benefit.  A  few  of  these  rules  are  given  to  show 
the  mechanical  nature  of  such  a  method  of  teaching.  *'In 
every  direct  period,  the  principal  pause  comes  at  that  part 
where  the  sense  begins  to  form,  or  the  expectation  excited  by 
the  first  member  begins  to  be  answered."  Or,  "A  loose  sen- 
tence requires  a  longer  pause  between  its  first  member  (usually 
a  period  direct  or  inverted),  and  the  additional  member  which 
does  not  modify  it."  And,  again,  "Where  the  adjective 
follows  the  substantive  or  noun  it  modifies,  and  has  modifiers 
of  its  own,  constituting  a  descriptive  phrase,  it  should  be 
separated  from  its  noun  by  a  short  pause."  Now,  it  may  be 
quite  true  that  these  rules  are  valid,  but  is  it  not  clear  that  the 


40  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

pedagogy  which  makes  use  of  them  in  the  earlier  stages  ap- 
proaches the  subject  from  the  wrong  side?  It  lays  stress  upon 
the  objective  rather  than  upon  the  subjective  aspect. 

The  pause  should  never  be  taught  merely  as  pause.  If  the 
principles  herein  discussed  have  any  meaning,  they  must 
surely  teach  us  that  the  pause  must  come  spontaneously. 
The  pedagogic  point  to  be  remembered  is  that  the  pupil  must 
be  trained  to  extract  the  thought  piece  by  piece,  and  to 
express  it.  The  pause  will  then  appear  without  conscious- 
ness. The  attempt  to  teach  pauses  as  such  must  result  in 
mechanical  silences,  during  which  the  face  of  the  pupil 
is  a  perfect  blank,  the  indubitable  sign  of  mental  blankness. 

It  should  certainly  now  be  clear  that  it  is  wrong  to 
draw  the  attention  of  the  pupil  to  the  pause  as  such,  and 
that  it  is  useless  and  often  misleading  to  give  him  at  the 
beginning  rules  of  pausing.  We  must  approach  the  printed 
page  in  the  spirit  with  which  we  approach  one  who  is  speak- 
ing to  us,  and,  having  grasped  the  meaning,  repeat  the  ideas. 
Then  the  pauses  will  come  as  the  unconscious  expression  of 
certain  definite  mental  action. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  better  way  of  bringing  home  to  the 
reader  the  psychological  action  lying  behind  grouping  and 
pausing  than  by  calling  his  attention  to  a  chapter  from  a  brief 
but  most  attractive  work  by  Ernest  Legouve,  of  the  Conserva- 
toire Franoaise: 

To  conclude  what  we  have  to  say  on  the  first  portion  of  our  sub- 
ject, the  material  part  of  reading,  we  must  now  occupy  ourselves  a 
little  with  what  may  be  called  punctuation. 

The  tongue  punctuates  as  well  as  the  pen. 

One  day,  Samson,  sitting  at  his  desk,  sees  himself  approached  by 
a  young  man  apparently  pretty  well  satisfied  with  himself. 

"You  wish  to  take  reading  lessons,  sir?" 

"Yes,  Monsieur  Samson." 

"Have  you  had  some  practice  in  reading  aloud?" 


THE  CRITERION  OF  TIME  41 

*'0  yes,  Monsieur  Samson,  I  have  often  recited  whole  passages 
from  Corneille  and  Moliere." 

*'In  public?" 

"Yes,  Monsieur  Samson." 

*'With  success?" 

"Well,  yes.  Monsieur,  I  think  I  may  flatter  myself  that  far." 

"Take  up  that  book,  please.  It  is  Fontaine's  Fables.  Open  it 
at  the  Oak  and  the  Reed.     Let  me  hear  you  read  a  line  or  two." 

The  pupil  begins : 

"The  Oak  one  day,  said  to  the  Reed " 

"That's  enough,  sir!    You  don't  know  anything  about  reading!" 

"It  is  because  I  don't  know  much,  Monsieur  Samson,"  replies 
the  pupil,  a  little  nettled,  "it  is  precisely  because  I  don't  know 
much  that  I've  come  to  you  for  lessons.  But  I  don't  exactly  com- 
prehend how  from  my  manner  of  reading  a  single  verse " 

"Read  the  line  again,  sir." 

He  reads  it  again : 

"The  Oak  one  day,  said  to  the  Reed " 

"There !    You  can't  read !    I  told  you  so !" 

"But " 

"But,"  interrupts  Samson,  cold  and  dry,  "but  why  do  you 
join  the  adverb  to  the  noun  rather  than  to  the  verb?  What  kind 
of  an  Oak  is  an  Oak  one  day?  No  kind  at  all !  There  is  no  such 
tree !  Why,  then,  do  you  say :  the  Oak  one  day,  said  to  the  Reed? 
This  is  the  way  it  should  go:  the  Oak  {comma)  one  day  said  to  the 
Reed,    You  understand,  of  course?" 

"Certainly  I  do,"  replies  the  other,  a  new  light  breaking  on 
him.     *  'It  seems  as  if  there  should  be  an  invisible  comma  after  Oak ! ' ' 

"You  are  right,  sir,"  continues  the  master.  "Every  passage 
has  a  double  set  of  punctuation  marks,  one  visible,  the  other 
invisible;  one  is  the  printer's  work,  the  other  the  reader's." 

"The  reader's?    Does  the  reader  also  punctuate?" 

"Certainly  he  does,  quite  independently  too  of  the  printer's 
points,  though  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  sometimes  both  coin- 
cide. By  a  certain  cadenced  silence  the  reader  marks  his  period ; 
by  a  half  silence,  his  comma;  by  a  certain  accent,  an  interroga- 
tion ;  by  a  certain  tone,  an  exclamation.  And  I  must  assure  you 
that  it  is  exclusively  on  the  skillful  distribution  of  these  insensible 
points  that  not  only  the  interest  of  the  story,  but  actually  its 
clearness,  its  comprehensibility,  altogether  depends." 


CHAPTER  iT 

THE    CKITEEIOK    OF    PITCH 

The  second  criterion  is  that  of  Pitch.  By  Pitch  is  meant 
everything  that  has  to  do  with  the  acuteness  or  gravity  of  the 
tone, — in  other  words,  with  keys,  melodies,  inflections  and 
modulations.  Again  we  are  indebted  to  Professor  Eaymond 
for  a  clear  statement  regarding  this  most  subtle  of  all  the 
elements  of  expression.  His  words  are  as  follows:  *'The 
melody  of  the  movement  taken  by  the  voice  represents,  there- 
fore, like  the  melody  in  music,  the  mind^s  motive^ — indicates 
its  purpose  in  using  the  particular  phraseology  to  which  the 
melody  is  applied;  and  because  pitch,  through  the  kinds  of 
inflections  and  melody  chosen,  reveals  the  motives,  we  shall 
find  that  the  use  of  this  element  in  ordinary  conversation  is 
constantly  causing  precisely  the  same  phraseology  to  express 
entirely  opposite  meanings."  Before  proceeding  further, 
it  may  be  well  to  illustrate  this  principle,  in  order  that  the 
reader  may  follow  more  clearly  the  subsequent  discussion. 

Let  us  suppose  some  one  to  ask  the  question,  ''Do  you 
think  Mr.  Jones  is  a  good  teacher?"  and  that  the  reply  is 
given,  ''Oh,  yes,"  with  a  melody  that  virtually  says,  "Oh,  I 
suppose  so ;  he  is  not  a  very  great  teacher ;  in  fact,  there  are 
many  things  about  his  teaching  that  might  be  a  great  deal 
better,  but  he  manages  to  get  along. "  l^ow,  all  of  this  para- 
phrase, which  reveals  the  motive,  is  manifested  in  the  signifi- 
cant melody  upon  the  two  words,  "Oh,  yes.'^  Let  us  suppose 
further  that  a  few  days  later  Mr.  Jones  comes  to  us  and  calls 
us  to  account  for  speaking  disparagingly  of  his  teaching. 
"What,  "we  reply,  "we  say  anything  against  your  teaching! 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  43 

Why,  when  Smith  asked  us  whether  we  considered  you  a 
good  teacher,  we  said  in  the  most  unequivocal  manner,  'Oh, 
yes' !  "  And  this  time  we  utter  the  words  with  strong,  posi- 
tive assertiveness.  The  words  in  both  cases  are  the  same,  but 
the  different  melodies  indicate  entirely  opposite  motives  behind 
the  words. 

Read  aloud  such  a  sentence  as,  **John  rode  to  the  park  last 
Christmas,"  changing  the  meaning  by  transferring  the  signifi- 
cant inflection  successively  to  all  the  important  words,  thus : 

John  rode  to  the  park  last  Christmas. 

John  rode  to  the  park  last  Christmas. 

John  rode  to  the  park  last  Christmas,  etc. 
Does  it  not  appear  that,  with  each  change  in  the  motive, 
the  melody  changes? 

We  often  hear  it  said  that  in  such  cases  as  the  last  we  have 
been  changing  the  emphasis.  This  is  true.  But  emphasis  is 
a  broad  term,  and  one  often  confused  with  force.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  changes  in  the  successive  readings  were  changes  of 
melody  due  in  every  case  to  changes  of  motive. 

Again,  **  When  we  are  in  our  graves  our  children  will  honor 
it.  They  will  celebrate  it  with  thanksgiving,  with  festivities, 
with  bonfires,  with  joy.'*  The  inflections  on  the  last  four 
nouns  would  probably  be  falling.  Why  ?  Because  each  would 
be  held  to  be  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  emphasized  by 
itself,  and  cut  off  from  the  others.  To  read  them  with  rising 
inflections  would  be  to  manifest  the  fact  that  the  mind  was 
thinking  of  them  in  the  aggregate.  Once  again,  the  melody 
shows  the  motive. 

The  melody  is  an  indubitable  sign  of  the  discriminative 
ability  of  the  reader.  It  is  the  severest  test  of  his  power  to 
perceive  sense,  or  logical,  relations.  So  important  a  feature 
of  the  work  is  this  that  it  appears  necessary  to  emphasize  it 
and  to  illustrate  it  in  many  ways. 


44  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Bassanio  desires  to  show  his  love  for  Antonio.     He  says : 

Antonio,  I  am  married  to  a  wife, 
"Which  is  as  dear  to  me  as  Hf  e  itself ; 
But  Hfe  itself,  my  wife,  and  all  the  world. 
Are  not  with  me  esteem' d  above  thy  life: 
I  would  lose  all,  ay,  sacrifice  them  all 
Here  to  this  devil,  to  deliver  you. 

It  is  evident  that  he  does  not  wish  to  assert  that  he  is  mar- 
ried, nor  that  he  is  married  to  a  wife ;  but  that  he  is  mai-ried 
to  a  wife  as  dear  as  life  itself.  And  yet  many  a  pupil  reads  the 
passage  as  if  Bassanio  were  desirous  of  insisting  upon  the  fact 
that  he  is  married  to  a  wife.  Not  a  very  remarkable  con- 
dition of  affairs,  truly.  It  is  no  argument  to  say  that  the 
comma  after  **wife"  indicates  the  necessity  of  a  rising  inflec- 
tion on  that  word.  As  has  been  already  intimated,  and  as  will 
be  later  developed,  the  punctuation  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  inflection. 

Meanwhile  King  Robert  yielded  to  his  fate. 
Sullen  and  silent  and  disconsolate. 
Dressed  in  the  motley  garb  that  Jesters  wear, 
With  look  bewildered,  and  a  vacant  stare. 
Close  shaven  above  the  ears,  as  monks  are  shorn. 
By  courtiers  mocked,  by  pages  laughed  to  scorn, 
His  only  friend  the  ape,  his  only  food 
What  others  left, — he  still  was  unsubdued. 

In  the  preceding  passage,  note  that  from  the  third  line  to 
the  clause  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  the  mind  is  glancing  for- 
ward, and  this  fact  will  be  evident  in  the  rising  inflection  at 
the  end  of  every  important  statement.  Notice,  further,  that 
all  of  these  statements  will  be  uttered  in  what  is  virtually  the 
same  melody.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  they  are  co-ordi- 
nate, and  having  the  same  motive  behind  them  will  be  read 
with  the  same  melody. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  45 

Observe  the  different  melodies  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  how  the  difference  manifests  the  varying  motive : 

I  said  ^^^'  ^^«>  t^^ee,  four,  five. 
I  said  one,  *^^'  ^^^ee,  four,  five. 
I  said  one,  two,  ^^^^^^e,  four,  five. 
I  said  one,  two,  three,  '^^^^,  five. 
I  said  one,  two,  three,  four,  «^^^- 

When  Mark  Antony  uses  the  phrase,  *' honorable  men,"  in 
the  beginning  of  his  oration,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he 
avoids  even  the  slightest  indication  of  sarcasm  in  his  voice. 
Whatever  his  ultimate  purpose  may  be,  his  immediate  inten- 
tion is  to  conciliate  the  mob.  This  purpose,  his  motive,  is 
shown  by  the  unequivocal  melody  with  which  he  says : 

Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest, — 
For  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man, 
So  are  they  all,  all  honorable  men, — 
Come  I  to  speak  on  Caesar's  funeral. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  consider  this  aspect  farther.  Let 
us,  however,  examine  the  subject  in  detail.  The  first  consider- 
ation is  that  of  Key.  Key  has  been  defined  as  *  *the  fundamental 
tone  of  a  movement  to  which  its  modulations  are  referred,  and 
with  which  it  generally  begins  and  ends ;  keynote."  (Webster.) 
Perhaps  the  meaning  of  the  current  phrases  **high  key"  and 
'*low  key"  will  make  the  definition  clear.  When  we  say  of 
one  that  he  speaks  in  a  high  key,  we  should  be  understood  as 
meaning  that  his  pitch  is  prevailingly  high;   and  that  the 


46  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

reverse  is  true  when  we  say  of  one  that  he  speaks  in  a  low 
key.  While  it  is  true  that  the  key  differs  in  individuals,  yet 
experience  shows  that  within  a  note  or  two  we  all  use  the  same 
keys  in  expressing  the  same  states  of  minds.  The  question 
for  us  is,  What  determines  the  key?  It  can  be  set  down  as  a 
fixed  principle  that  controlled  mental  states  are  expressed  in 
the  low  keys,  while  the  high  keys  are  the  manifestation  of 
the  less  controlled  mental  conditions.*  This  principle  will  be 
more  readily  understood  when  we  consider  the  states  finding 
expression  in  low  or  high  key  in  music.  We  should  hardly 
awaken  much  enthusiasm  by  playing  Yankee  Doodle  in  a 
key  very  much  below  that  in  which  it  is  written;  nor  should 
we  catch  the  subtle  meaning  of  Chopin's  Funeral  March  if 
it  were  played  in  a  key  very  much  higher  than  the  original  key. 
Let  the  reader  study  the  spirit  of  the  following  extracts,  and 
read  them  aloud.  He  will  find  in  such  practice  the  best  proof 
of  the  truth  of  the  principle  we  are  here  discussing : 

Over  his  keys  the  musing  organist, 

Beginning  doubtfully  and  far  away, 
First  lets  his  fingers  wander  as  they  list, 

And  builds  a  bridge  from  Dreamland  for  his  lay : 
Then,  as  the  touch  of  his  loved  instrument 

Gives  hope  and  fervor,  nearer  draws  his  theme. 
First  guessed  by  faint  auroral  flushes  sent 

Along  the  wavering  vista  of  his  dream. 

— The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal.    Lowell. 


*  In  describing  what  is  small,  delicate,  nice,  we  often  note  the  ten- 
dency to  use  a  rather  hig-h  key.  This  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  tension 
that  results  from  unconscious  imitation.  The  voice  is  to  a  certain 
extent  squeezed  in  endeavoring  to  express  the  smallness  of  the  idea, 
with  the  result  that  the  key  is  raised.  Note  how  the  child's  key  rises 
when  he  asks  for  a  *'  leetle,  teej^j  bit." 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  47 

It  is  but  a  legend,  I  know, — 
A  fable,  a  phantom,  a  show, 

Of  the  ancient  Rabbinical  lore ; 
Yet  the  old  mediaeval  tradition, 
The  beautiful,  strange  superstition, 

But  haunts  me  and  holds  me  the  more. 

When  I  look  from  my  window  at  night, 
And  the  welkin  above  is  all  white, 

All  throbbing  and  panting  with  stars, 
Among  them  majestic  is  standing 
Sandalphon  the  angel,  expanding 

His  pinions  in  nebulous  bars. 

And  the  legend,  I  feel,  is  a  part 

Of  the  hunger  and  thirst  of  the  heart, 

The  frenzy  and  fire  of  the  brain. 
That  grasps  at  the  fruitage  forbidden. 
The  golden  pomegranates  of  Eden, 

To  quiet  its  fever  and  pain. 

— Sandalphon.    Longfellow. 


I  had  a  dream,  which  was  not  all  a  dream. 

The  bright  sun  was  extinguished ;  and  the  stars 

Did  wander  darkling  in  the  eternal  space, 

Ray  less,  and  pathless ;  and  the  icy  earth 

Swung  blind  and  blackening  in  the  moonless  air ; 

Morn  came,  and  went, — and  came,  and  brought  no  day. 

The  world  was  void ; 
The  populous  and  the  powerful  was  a  lump, — 
Seasonless,  herbless,  treeless,  manless,  lifeless, — 
A  lump  of  death — a  chaos  of  hard  clay. 
The  rivers,  lakes,  and  ocean,  all  stood  still ; 
And  nothing  stirred  within  their  silent  depths: 
Ships,  sailorless,  lay  rotting  on  the  sea ; 
And  tjieir  masts  fell  down  piecemeal :  as  they  dropped, 
They  slept  on  the  abyss  without  a  surge ; — 
The  waves  were  dead;  the  tides  were  in  their  grave; 
The  moon,  their  mistress,  had  expired  before ; 


4i^  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  winds  were  withered  in  the  stagnant  air ; 
And  the  clouds  perished :  Darkness  had  no  need 
Of  aid  from  them,  She — was  the  universe. 

— Darkness.    Byron. 

A  fool,  a  fool ! — I  met  a  fool  i'  th'  forest, 

A  motley  fool ; — a  miserable  world ! — 

As  I  do  live  by  food,  I  met  a  fool ; 

Who  laid  him  down,  and  bask'd  him  in  the  sun, 

And  rail'd  on  lady  Fortune  in  good  terms, 

In  good  set  terms, — and  yet  a  motley  fool. 

*'Good  morrow,  fool,"  quoth  I;  "No,  sir,"  quoth  he, 

*'Call  me  not  fool,  till  heav'n  hath  sent  me  fortune;" 

And  then  he  drew  a  dial  from  his  poke : 

And  looking  on  it  with  lack-lustre  eye. 

Says,  very  wisely,  "It  is  ten  o'clock; 

Thus  may  we  see,"  quoth  he,  "how  the  world  wags; 

'Tis  but  an  hour  ago,  since  it  was  nine ; 

And  after  one  hour  more  'twill  be  eleven ; 

And  so,  from  hour  to  hour,  we  ripe  and  ripe. 

And  then,  from  hour  to  hour,  we  rot  and  rot. 

And  thereby  hangs  a  tale. "    When  I  did  hear 

The  motley  fool  thus  moral  on  the  time. 

My  lungs  began  to  crow  like  chanticleer. 

That  fools  should  be  so  deep  contemplative. 

And  I  did  laugh,  sans  intermission 

An  hour  by  his  dial.     O  noble  fool ! 

A  worthy  fool!    Motley's  the  only  wear. 

— As  You  Like  It,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  7. 

Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Jest,  and  youthful  jollity, 
Quips,  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles, 
Nods,  and  becks,  and  wreathed  smiles, 
Such  as  hang  on  Hebe's  cheek. 
And  love  to  dwell  in  dimple  sleek ; 
Come,  and  trip  it  as  ye  go. 
On  the  light  fantastic  toe. 

— V  Allegro.    Milton. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  49 

"Where  sweeps  round  the  mountains 

The  cloud  on  the  gale, 
And  streams  from  their  fountains 

Leap  into  the  vale, — 
Like  frighted  deer  leap  when 

The  storm  with  his  pack 
Rides  over  the  steep  in 
The  wild  torrent's  track, — 
Even  there  my  free  home  is ; 

There  watch  I  the  flocks 
Wander  white  as  the  foam  is 

In  stairways  of  rocks. 
Secure  in  the  gorge  there 

In  freedom  we  sing. 
And  laugh  at  King  George,  where 
The  eagle  is  king. 

^Song.    T.  B.  Read. 

The  reason  for  low  pitch  or  high  pitch  is  psycho-physiolog- 
ical. Nerve  tension  means  muscular  tension,  and,  since  the 
muscles  controlling  the  yocal  chords  are  subject  to  the  same 
laws  as  the  other  muscles,  the  greater  the  tension  the 
higher  the  pitch.  Hence,  since  what  we  have  called  the  con- 
trolled states  are  accompanied  by  relatively  low  muscular  ten- 
sion, it  necessarily  follows  that  they  will  be  expressed  in 
relatively  low  keys. 

The  desire  to  communicate  thought  to  another  has  a 
tendency  to  raise  the  key.  To  illustrate :  if  we  are  addressing 
an  audience  in  a  small  room,  we  shall  speak  in  a  moderately 
low  key.  If  the  auditorium  is  large,  the  key  will  be  higher. 
If  we  are  speaking  in  the  open  air,  the  chances  are  that  we 
shall  use  a  key  considerably  above  that  of  ordinary  conversa- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  when  one  is  communing  with 
himself,  the  absence  of  desire  to  reach  others  removes  the 
tension,  and  in  consequence  the  pitch  is  low.  It  is  well  to 
bear  in  mind  that  all  soliloquies  are  not  read  in  low  key. 


50  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Soliloquies  are  often  full  of  uncontrolled  passion,  in  which 
case  the  principle  first  laid  down  would  apply,  and  the  pitch 
would  be  high,  according  to  the  degree  of  tension.  What  has 
been  said  in  this  paragraph  we  may  sum  up  in  a  few  words : 
those  states  in  which  there  is  strong  desire  to  communicate 
(objective  states)  are  manifested  in  high  key;  while  the 
introspective  (subjective)  states  find  expression  in  the  lower 
keys.  Henry  Y.,  inciting  his  soldiers  to  attack  the  enemy's 
fortifications,  says: 

Once  more  unto  the  breach,  dear  friends,  once  more; 

Or  close  the  wall  up  with  our  English  dead ! 

In  peace,  there's  nothing  so  becomes  a  man, 

As  modest  stillness,  and  himiility : 

But  when  the  blast  of  war  blows  in  our  ears, 

Then  imitate  the  action  of  the  tiger ; 

Stiffen  the  sinews,  summon  up  the  blood. 

Disguise  fair  nature  with  hard-favor' d  rage: 

Then  lend  the  eye  a  terrible  aspect ; 

Let  it  pry  through  the  portage  of  the  head, 

Like  the  brass  cannon ;  let  the  brow  o'erwhelm  it, 

As  fearfully  as  doth  a  galled  rock 

O'er  hang  and  jutty  his  confounded  base. 

Swill' d  with  the  wild  and  wasteful  ocean. 

Now  set  the  teeth,  and  stretch  the  nostril  wide; 

Hold  hard  the  breath,  and  bend  up  every  spirit 

To  his  full  height ! — On,  on,  you  noblest  English, 

Whose  blood  is  fet  from  fathers  of  war-proof! — 


The  game's  afoot; 
Follow  your  spirit :  and,  upon  this  charge. 
Cry — God  for  Harry!  England!  and  Saint  George ! 

— Henry  V,,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  1. 

The  tension  of  the  speaker  is  evidently  high,  owing  to  the 
exhilaration  of  the  moment,  and  to  the  desire  to  project  his 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH 


51 


voice  (of  which  he  maybe  unconscious),  and  consequently  the 
key  will  be  high.  It  is  the  joy  of  the  English  people  that 
Tennyson  voices  in  his  Welcome  to  Alexandra,  Again  the 
key  is  relatively  high. 

Sea-kings'  daughter  from  over  the  sea,  Alexandra ! 

Saxon  and  Norman  and  Dane  are  we, 

But  all  of  us  Danes  in  our  welcome  of  thee,  Alexandra ! 

Welcome  her,  thunders  of  fort  and  of  fleet ! 
Welcome  her,  thundering  cheer  of  the  street ! 
Welcome  her,  all  things  youthful  and  sweet, 
Scatter  the  blossoms  under  her  feet ! 
Break,  happy  land,  into  earlier  flowers! 
Make  music,  O  bird,  in  the  new-budded  bowers! 
Blazon  your  mottoes  of  blessing  and  prayer ! 
Welcome  her,  welcome  her,  all  that  is  ours! 
Warble,  O  bugle,  and  trumpet,  blare ! 
Flags,  flutter  out  upon  turrets  and  towers ! 
Flames,  on  the  windy  headland  flare  1 
Utter  your  jubilee,  steeple  and  spire ! 
Clash,  ye  bells,  in  the  merry  March  air! 
Flash,  ye  cities,  in  rivers  of  fire ! 
Rush  to  the  roof,  sudden  rocket,  and  higher 
Melt  into  stars  for  the  land's  desire ! 
Roll  and  rejoice,  jubilant  voice, 
Roll  as  a  ground-swell  dashed  on  the  strand. 
Roar  as  the  sea  when  it  welcomes  the  land, 
And  welcome  her,  welcome  the  land's  desire, 
The  sea-kings'  daughter  as  happy  as  fair, 
Blissful  bride  of  a  blissful  heir, 
Bride  of  the  heir  of  the  kings  of  the  sea. 
O  joy  to  the  people  and  joy  to  the  throne, 
Come  to  us,  love  us,  and  make  us  your  own ; 
For  Saxon  or  Dane  or  Norman  we. 
Teuton  or  Celt,  or  whatever  we  be. 

We  are  each  all  Dane  in  our  welcome  of  thee,  Alexandra ! 

— Welcome  to  Alexandra.    Tennyson. 

Hamlet's  soliloquy  will  find  expression  in  moderately  low 


52  READING  IN  THE  PUBLlU  SCHOOLS 

key  when  one  grasps   the  idea  that  Hamlet   is   meditating 
upon : 

To  be,  or  not  to  be, — that  is  the  question; 

Whether  'tis  nobler  in  the  mind  to  suffer 

The  slings  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune, 

Or  to  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles, 

And  by  opposing  end  them?    To  die, — to  sleep, — 

No  more ;  and  by  a  sleep  to  say  we  end 

The  heart-ache,  and  the  thousand  natural  shocks 

That  flesh  is  heir  to, — 'tis  a  consummation 

Devoutly  to  be  wish' d.     To  die, — to  sleep; — 

To  sleep !  perchance  to  dream ! — ay,  there's  the  rub ; 

For  in  that  sleep  of  death  what  dreams  may  come 

When  we  have  shuffled  off  this  mortal  coil. 

Must  give  us  pause:  there's  the  respect 

That  makes  calamity  of  so  long  life ; 

For  who  would  bear  the  whips  and  scorns  of  time, 

Th'  oppressor's  wrong,  the  proud  man's  contumely, 

The  pangs  of  disprized  love,  the  law's  delay. 

The  insolence  of  office,  and  the  spurns 

That  patient  merit  of  th'  unworthy  takes. 

When  he  himself  might  his  quietus  made 

With  a  bare  bodkin?  who  would  fardels  bear. 

To  grunt  and  sweat  under  a  weary  life. 

But  that  the  dread  of  something  after  death, — 

The  undiscover'd  country  from  whose  bourn 

No  traveler  returns, — puzzles  the  will, 

And  makes  us  rather  bear  those  ills  we  have 

Than  fly  to  others  that  we  know  not  of? 

Thus  conscience  does  make  cowards  of  us  all ; 

And  thus  the  native  hue  of  resolution 

Is  sicklied  o'er  with  the  pale  cast  of  thought ; 

And  enterprises  of  great  pith  and  moment 

With  this  regard  their  currents  turn  awry, 

And  lose  the  name  of  action. 

— Hamlet,  Act  iii..  So.  1. 

The  following  lines  are   delivered   by   Hamlet  when  he 
appreciates  the  fact  that  while  his  father's  blood  cries  out  for 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  63 

vengeance  he  stands  idle,  beset  by  doubts  and  fears.  The 
speech  is  a  soliloquy,  but  it  would  be  rendered  in  a  moderately 
high  pitch  owing  to  the  mental  tension  of  the  speaker : 

O,  what  a  rogue  and  peasant  slave  am  I ! 

Is  it  not  monstrous,  that  this  player  here, 

But  in  a  fiction,  in  a  dream  of  passion, 

Could  force  his  soul  so  to  his  own  conceit. 

That  from  her  working  all  his  visage  wann'd; 

Tears  in  his  eyes,  distraction  in  's  aspect, 

A  broken  voice,  and  his  whole  function  suiting 

With  forms  to  his  conceit?  and  all  for  nothing  I 

For  Hecuba ! 

What's  Hecuba  to  him,  or  he  to  Hecuba, 

That  he  should  weep  for  her?    What  would  he  do, 

Had  he  the  motive  and  the  cue  for  passion 

That  I  have?    He  would  drown  the  stage  wath  tears. 

And  cleave  the  general  ear  with  horrid  speech ; 

Make  mad  the  guilty,  and  appal  the  free. 

Confound  the  ignorant,  and  amaze  indeed 

The  very  faculties  of  eyes  and  ears.    Yet  I, 

A  dull  and  muddy-mettled  rascal,  peak, 

Like  John-a- dreams,  unpregnant  of  my  cause, 

And  can  say  nothing ;  no,  not  for  a  king 

Upon  whose  property  and  most  dear  life 

A  damn'd  defeat  was  made.     Am  I  a  coward? 

Who  calls  me  villain?  breaks  my  pate  across? 

Plucks  off  my  beard,  and  blows  it  in  my  face? 

Tweaks  me  by  th'  nose?  gives  me  the  lie  i'  the  throat, 

As  deep  as  to  the  lungs?  who  does  me  this? 

Ha! 

'Swounds,  I  should  take  it ;  for  it  cannot  be 

But  I  am  pigeon-liver' d,  and  lack  gall 

To  make  oppression  bitter ;  or,  ere  this, 

I  should  have  fatted  all  the  region  kites 

With  this  slave's  offal.     Bloody,  bawdy  villain ! 

Remorseless,  treacherous,  lecherous,  kindless  villain ! 

O  vengeance  1 

— Hamlet,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  2. 


54  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  principle  just  discussed, — that  key  depends  on  the 
degree  of  tension,  first  mental,  then  physical, — is  of  very  wide 
application.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  explains  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  melody.  In  passing  from  a  controlled  to  a  less  con- 
trolled state,  the  voice  rises,  and  vice  versa.  To  illustrate: 
Brutus  says  to  Cassius,  *'You  yourself  are  much  condemned 
to  have  an  itching  palm";  and  Cassius  replies,  ^'I  an  itching 
palm!'*  On  the  word  *^I"  the  voice  of  Cassius  strikes  upward 
through,  perhaps,  an  octave  of  the  scale,  and  this  inflection 
manifests  the  increasing  tension  of  Cassius'  mind  as  he  utters 
the  exclamation.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  restrain  the  tension 
of  throat  and  hand  while  reading  the  passage.  Note  how  the 
muscular  tension  increases  while  one  is  speaking  the  words  of 
Cassius.  Bearing  in  mind  what  has  been  said  of  the  relation 
of  bodily  tension  to  pitch,  the  explanation  of  Cassius'  inflec- 
tion will  not  be  far  to  seek.  Again,  Brutus  says,  "The  name 
of  Cassius  honors  this  corruption,  and  chastisement  doth 
therefore  hide  his  head."  Cassius  replies  in  one  word, 
"Chastisement."  There  are  two  interpretations  of  this 
word:  one,  that  Cassius  replies,  as  if  questioning,  "Do  you 
dare  say  this  to  me?"  and  the  other,  that,  astounded  at  the 
bluntness  of  Brutus 's  speech,  Cassius  replies,  speaking  to  him- 
self, "He  dared  speak  of  chastisement  to  me!"  In  the  first 
case  the  inflection  would  be  rising,  denoting  the  increase  of 
tension ;  in  the  second  case,  the  inflection  would  be  falling, 
marking  a  gradual  decrease  of  tension.  Let  the  reader 
experiment  on  this  example,  and  observe  how  the  mental  ten- 
sion corresponds  with  the  physical  tension. 

The  melody  in  which  any  phrase  or  sentence  is  given 
consists  of  a  series  of  waves,  the  crests  of  which  mark  the 
maximum  of  tension.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  indicate 
speech  melody,  but  it  is  hoped  the  following  illustrations  will 
be  at  least  sufficiently  suggestive  to  make  clear  the  psychology 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  55 

of  melody.  In  the  following  sentence  there  is  a  gradual 
ascent  of  the  voice,  since  the  intensity  increases  from  the  first 
word  to  the  end. 


'b' 


r  ^^  ^ 


-^ 


-^ 


O  ^v  <? 


o" 


Again,  we  have  a  very  similar  melody  in  this : 

Would  you  wrest  the  wreath  of  fame 
From  the  hand  of  fate? 

The  descending  melody,  denoting  that  the  maximum  of  ten- 
sion is  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  is  found  in  the  following : 
All 

^^     all 

'     all      . 

*'Dead"  marks  the  crest  of  the  wave  of  tension  in  the 
following.  Observe  how  the  melody  rises  to  that  word  and 
descends  after  it : 

dead,  So 

pleasure  sadness 

strike  breathes 

from 

^^^^  out 

dungeons  tlie 

from  mould 

breathed  where 

Burns 
vapors  .g 

As  laid. 


56  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

For  those  who  have  no  musical  ear,  it  may  be  somewhat 
diflBcult  to  catch  these  speech  melodies.  But,  fortunately,  in 
most  cases,  an  acute  musical  ear  is  not  necessary.  Melody 
takes  care  of  itself.  When  we  have  determined  the  principal 
word  in  each  phrase,  the  melody  will  rise  or  fall  from  that 
without  any  effort  on  our  part.  And  furthermore,  even  those 
without  an  ear  for  tune  recognize  instinctively  the  appropriate- 
ness of  a  given  melody  which  they  may  be  unable  to  analyze  in 
detail.  Nevertheless,  the  ability  to  analyze  speech  tunes  is  a 
great  aid  to  the  teacher ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  fore- 
going explanation  will  materially  assist  him  in  his  work  of 
developing  the  logical  acumen  of  his  class. 

Melody  is  made  up  of  skips  and  inflections.  The  inflection 
needs  no  definition ;  the  skip  is  simply  a  discrete  passage  from 
one  note  to  another.  As  the  violinist  draws  his  bow  over  the 
string  and  simultaneously  runs  his  finger  up  or  down  the 
string,  we  have  the  analogy  of  the  inflection.  The  pianist 
cannot  do  more  than  skip  from  one  note  to  another,  although 
there  is  an  approximation  to  the  glide,  or  inflection,  in  legato 
playing.     The  skip  is  found  in  such  a  sentence  as  this : 

tus  ue  tors? 

Give  a  with 

Bru  his  ces 

stat  an 

The  psychology  of  the  skip  is  precisely  that  of  the  inflec- 
tion, i.  e.,  transition  from  less  to  more  tension,  or  the  reverse. 
In  such  an  exclamation  as,  ''Thou  tattered  upstart!^'  it  is 
next  to  impossible  to  use  the  wide  rising  inflection  that  would 
be  natural  on  the  first  syllable  of  "upstart,"  owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  syllable.  Hence,  there  would  be  a  skip  be- 
tween "up"  and  "start."  But  let  it  be  carefully  observed 
that,  including  the  skip,  the  voice  traverses  exactly  the  in- 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  67 

terval  it  would  have  passed  through  had  it  been  possible  to 
use  one  inflection,  as,  for  instance,  on  "boy"  in  "Thou  tat- 
tered boy!"     Our  attention  may  now  be  turned  to  inflections. 

Inflections  are  not  a  matter  of  accident,  nor  are  they  a 
conventional  device.  Their  meaning  is  definite  and  fixed, 
and  their  force  instinctively  recognized  by  all.  Although  we 
do  not  stop  to  analyze  them,  they  convey  to  all  alike  a  distinct 
shade  of  thought.  And  further,  the  same  shade  of  thought 
will  always  find  expression  through  the  same  inflections.  We 
must  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not  claimed  that  all  will  be  moved 
in  the  same  way  by  the  same  stimulus,  nor  that  all  will  take 
the  same  meaning  from  a  given  passage.  What  is  claimed  is, 
that  the  same  purpose  will  find  expression,  with  all,  in  funda- 
mentally the  same  melody  (of  which  inflections  form  the 
larger  part).  If  this  were  not  so,  how  should  we  understand 
one  another?  We  discern  a  speaker's  purpose  quite  as  much 
in  his  melody  as  in  his  words.  For  example,  if  one  were  to  ask, 
"Are  you  going  out?"  with  the  object  of  acquiring  informa- 
tion, he  would  use  instinctively  a  rising  inflection  on  "out." 
If  he  were  surprised  at  our  intention  to  go  out,  he  would  use  a 
wider  rising  inflection.  And  if  he  had  asked  the  question 
several  times  without  receiving  a  reply,  and  were  now  insisting 
on  an  answer  (his  motive  now  being  to  assert  his  right  to  an 
answer)  he  would  use  a  wide  downward  inflection  on  "out." 
And  so  should  we  all  under  like  conditions,  and  the  meaning 
of  all  would  be  alike  understood  by  all.  We  need  enlarge  no 
further  on  this.  Let  it  suffice  that  if  given  inflections  had 
not  always  the  same  meaning  and  were  not  always  instinctively 
used  to  express  the  same  purpose,  conversation  would  be 
impossible. 

The  rising  inflection  is  the  sign  of  incomplete  sense. 
Whenever  the  mind  points  forward  the  significant  inflection  is 
upward.     Test  this  in  the  following  illustrations.     The  rising 


58  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

inflection  will  be  particularly  noticed  on  the  italicized  words, 
which  are  not  necessarily  to  be  strongly  emphasized : 

In  1815  M.  Charles  Myriel  was  the  bishop  of  D .     He  was  a 

man  of  about  seventy-five  years  of  age,  and  had  held  the  see  of 

D since  1806.      Although  the    following    details    in    no    way 

affect  our  narrative,  it  may  not  be  useless  to  quote  the  rumors  that 
were  current  about  Mm  at  the  moment  when  he  came  to  the 
diocese ;  for  what  is  said  of  men,  whether  it  be  true  or  false,  often 
occupies  as  much  space  in  their  life,  and  especially  in  their  destiny,* 
as  what  they  do. 

The  beams  of  the  rising  sun  had  gilded  the  lofty  domes  of  Carth- 
age, and  given,  with  its  rich  and  mellow  light,  a  tinge  of  beauty 
even  to  the  frowning  ramparts  of  the  outer  harbor. 

When,  for  any  reason,  we  do  not  desire  to  assert  strongly ; 
when  what  we  have  to  say  is  trite,  trivial,  repetitious ;  when 
we  are  uncertain  or  doubtful ;  when  we  entreat ;  when  we  ask 
a  question  to  which  the  answer  yes  or  no  is  expected,  we  also 
use  the  rising  inflection. 

I  do  not  claim  this  is  the  only  method. 

I  cannot  promise  definitely,  but  I  think  you  may  rely  upon 
getting  it. 

I  shall  wait  for  you  in  the  lobby,  if  you  don't  tarry  too  long. 

It  doesn't  look  like  rain,  does  it? 

There  are  some  arguments  in  its  favor,  but  they  are  not 
weighty. 

No,  nobody  claims  that. 

I  grant  I  may  have  taken  the  honorable  gentleman  by  surprise. 

I  cannot  tell  what  you  and  other  men 
Think  of  this  life,  but,  for  my  single  self, 
I  had  as  lief  not  be  as  live  to  be 
In  awe  of  such  a  thing  as  I  myself. 

♦  The  rising  inflection  wiU  be  heard  only  on  the  last  syllable  of  this 
word.  Note  the  discreet  skip  of  the  voice  between  the  first  and  second 
syllables. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  69 

I  do  not  charge  the  gentleman  with  wilful  misstatement,  but  I 
would  rather  say  he  is  a  great  economizer  of  the  truth. 

I  do  not  like  to  think  that  the  opposition  is  purposely  delaying 
the  vote  on  this  question. 

Never  fear  that:  if  he  be  so  resolved, 
I  can  o'ersway  him. 

You  won't  leave  me,  father. 

Good  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  me  not  stir  you  up  to  such  a 
•judden  flood  of  mutiny ! 

O,  Hamlet,  speak  no  more. 

Pity  the  sorrows  of  a  poor  old  man. 

It  would  be  idle  to  base  an  opinion  on  any  argument  of  Mr. 
Webster. 

O,  that  is  of  no  consequence ;  you  don't  believe  that. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  for  me  to  go  over  the  charges  of  the 
attorney  for  the  plaintiff;  they  are  trivial  and  unimportant. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  you  know  the  early  history  of  these 
people. 

There  are  very  few  who  haven't  a  bowing  acquaintance  with 
this  subject. 

You  know  me  well,  and  herein  spend  but  time 
To  wind  about  my  love  with  circumstance. 

Not  that  I  loved  Caesar  less,  but  that  I  loved  Rome  more. 

It  is  not  that  I  doubt  the  gentleman's  honesty,  but  that  I  ques- 
tion his  authority. 

It  was  at  the  end  of  the  war  that  this  incident  occurred ;  not  at 
the  beginning. 

Uncertainty,  confusion,  hesitation,  and  other  forms  of 
doubt,  are  really  questions, — the  mind  seeking  solution  of 
difficult  and  perplexing  problems. 

I  wish  I  could  find  some  way  out  of  this,  but — 


60  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

There  ought  to  be  some  other  method  of  solving  this  difficulty: 
let  me  see,  let  me  see. 

I  would  I  had  been  there. 

Are  you  the  owner  of  this  house? 

Can  you  tell  me  what  time  it  is? 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confuse  this  form  of  interroga- 
tion with  Figurative  Interrogation.  The  latter  is  often  strongly 
assertive.     For  instance : 

God  of  battles,  was  ever  a  battle  like  this  in  the  world  before? 

This  is  equivalent  to  asking  a  question  and  answering  it  at 
the  same  time.  It  asks  in  words,  "was  ever?"  It  answers  in 
inflection,  ''there  never  was."  Grammatically,  then,  it  is  a 
question ;  rhetorically,  it  is  an  exclamation.  Here  is  another 
form  of  Figurative  Interrogation : 

Are  you  going  out?  (No  answer.)  Are  you  going  out?  (I 
demand  an  answer. ) 

In  this  case,  the  second  question  becomes  a  demand.  The 
speaker  cares  for  an  answer  not  so  much  because  of  any  inter- 
est in  it  as  such,  but  because  he  desires  his  authority  respected. 

The  following  examples  of  Figurative  Interrogation  should 
be  carefully  studied : 

Is  there  a  single  atrocity  of  the  French  more  unprincipled  and 
inhimian  than  that  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  in  Poland? 

Did  he  not  know  that  he  was  making  history  that  hour?  Did  he 
not  know  this,  I  say? 

If  I  were  to  propose  three  cheers  for  Washington,  is  there  a 
single  man,  woman,  or  child  in  this  vast  audience  who  would  refuse 
to  lift  his  voice? 

Have  you,  gentlemen  of  the  jury,  considered  the  price  the  state 
asks  the  prisoner  to  pay  for  what  is  only  an  indiscretion  at  most?  I 
repeat,  have  you  considered  the  price? 

Has  the  gentleman  done?    Has  he  completely  done? 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  61 

A  very  interesting  psychological  question  arises  in  connec- 
tion with  Figurative  Interrogation.  It  has  been  shown  how 
the  grammatical  question  becomes  an  oratorical  assertion ;  but 
there  is  a  point  in  assertion  beyond  which  it  may  pass  and 
become  an  intense  emotional  question.  In  this  sentence,  ' '  Shall 
not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right?"  we  have  an  illustra- 
tion. There  are  three  possibilities  here.  First:  a  simple 
question  looking  for  information.  Second:  an  exclamation 
equivalent  to,  Who  does  not  know  that  the  Judge  of  all  the 
eai'th  shall  do  right?  Third :  a  skeptical  question  (with  con- 
siderable emotion ) ,  Is  it  possible  that  any  one  would  deny  that 
the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  shall  do  right? 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  and  make  many 
refinements  of  this  principle  underlying  the  use  of  the  rising 
inflection.  A  careful  study,  however,  of  those  given  should 
suffice  to  impress  upon  the  reader  that  the  rising  inflection 
will  be  given  whenever  for  any  reason  whatsoever  there  is  no 
desire  to  assert. 

Incompleteness  (implied  or  otherwise)  is  marked  by  the 
rising  inflection;  completeness  by  the  falling.  We  are  all 
aware  that  the  falling  inflection  marks  completed  sense,  so 
that  this  principle  will  require  neither  elaboration  nor  illustra- 
tion. Attention  must  be  called,  however,  to  the  fact  that  we 
often  assert  strongly  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence.  This  phase 
of  the  subject  has  been  so  well  described  by  another*  that  we 
quote  as  follows : 

"Momentary  Completeness. — This  applies  to  any  clause, 
phrase,  or  even  word,  which  has,  for  any  reason,  enough  sepa- 
rate force  to  constitute,  at  the  moment,  an  entire  thought,  and 

*Prof.  W.  B.  Chamberlain  in  his  "Rhetoric  of  Vocal  Expression." 
This  work  is  now  out  of  print,  but  a  revision  and  enlargement  of  it 
is  published  by  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  of  Chicago,  under  the  title 
"  Principles  of  Vocal  Expression  and  Literary  Interpretation." 


62  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

to  call  for  a  separate  affirmation  of  the  mind.  This  momentary 
completeness  may  arise : 

'*!.  From  the  logical  importance  of  the  clause,  phrase,  or 
word  requiring  a  strong  affirmative  emphasis. 

''2.  From  an  elliptical  construction — one  in  which  each 
part  could  be  reasonably  expanded  into  a  complete  proposition. 
'^Example  of  1  would  be  this  sentence  from  Webster: 

It  comes,  if  it  come  at  all,  like  the  outbreaking  of  a  fountain , 
from  the  earth,  or  the  bursting  forth  of  volcanic  fires,  with  spon- 
taneous, original,  native  force. 

"Here  the  ideas  of  spontaneity,  originality,  nativeness,  are  each 
so  important  to  the  thought  that  the  mind  is  called  ufjon  to  make 
a  separate  affirmation  upon  each  one. 

^''Examples  of  2  are  found  in  some  of  the  connected  clauses  in 
this  passage  from  Byron's  Dream  of  Darkness: 

I  had  a  dream,  which  was  not  all  a  dream. 

The  bright  sun  was  extinguished,  and  the  stars 

Did  wander,  darkling,  in  the  eternal  space, 

Rayless  and  pathless,  and  the  icy  earth 

Swung  blind  and  blackening  in  the  moonless  air. 

Morn  came  and  went — and  came,  and  brought  no  day. 

And  men  forgot  their  passions  in  the  dread 

Of  this  their  desolation ;  and  all  hearts 

Were  chilled  into  a  selfish  prayer  for  light. 

''The  *loose'  sentence  presents  atypical  case  of  momentary 
completeness,  each  added  clause  or  element  giving  a  separate, 
subjoined  thought. 

"In  the  following  cases  the  period  mark  inclosed  in 
brackets,  [.],  indicates  the  place  at  which  the  sentence  might 
close ;  and  the  words  in  parentheses  are  those  which  might  be 
supplied  in  constructing  separate  complete  propositions.  The 
reconstruction  suggests  the  probable  process  of  thought. 

The  next  day  he  voted  for  that  repeal  [.],  and  he  would  have 
spoken  for  it  too  [.],  if  an  illness  had  not  prevented  it. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  63 

The  Englishman  in  America  will  feel  that  this  is  slavery — that 
it  is  legal  slavery,  will  be  no  compensation,  either  to  his  feelings  or 
his  understanding. 

'*The  Englishman  in  America  will  feel  that  this  is  slavery 
[.].  (The  mere  fact)  that  it  is  legal  slavery  will  (in  his  esti- 
mation) be  no  compensation  (at  all).  (It  will  not  be  (in  any 
degree)  satisfactory)  either  to  his  feelings  or  his  understand- 
ing. 

''Completeness  is  marked  in  the  voice  by  a  falling  slide; 
that  indicating  finality  usually  descends  at  least  a  fifth  (from 
sol  down  to  do)^  and  is  preceded  by  a  more  or  less  distinct 
rising  melody.  This  cadential  melody  may  carry  the  voice  so 
high  in  pitch  that  the  falling  slide  will  be  as  great  as  an 
octave.  The  indication  of  momentary  completeness  is  also  a 
falling  slide,  varying  in  extent  from  a  third  to  a  fifth,  but  not 
so  marked  as  that  of  finality,  and  usually  not  preceded  by  any 
special  rising  melody. 

"In  the  following  example  note  momentary  completeness 
on  'man, ' 'woman,'  'child,'  and  finality  on  the  climacteric 
word  'beast.'     Thus: 

They  saw  not  one  mkn,  not  one  woman,  not  one  child, 

b 
footed  e 

four  a 

one  s 

not  t. 

"It  is  especially  important  to  study  the  relation  of  momen- 
tary completeness  in  connection  with  dependent  clauses.  As 
a  rule,  a  definitive  clause  does  not  stand  in  the  relation  of 
momentary  completeness,  but  in  that  of  subordination  or 
anticipation.  A  supplemental  clause,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
distinctively  complete.  This  relation  is  not  always  shown, 
either  by  the   punctuation,  or  by  exact  use  of  relative  pro- 


64  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

nouns.  In  strictness,  ^who'  and  'whicli',  as  already  said, 
should  always  mark  supplemental  relations;  'that,'  definitive. 
Considerations  of  euphony,  however,  often  overrule  grammat- 
ical and  rhetorical  principles.  The  problem  in  regard  to 
dependent  clauses  is ;  to  decide  whether  the  subordinate  clause 
contains  additional  thought,  or  only  modifying  thought.  The 
best  practical  test  will  be  found  in  paraphrasing.  If  a  depen- 
dent clause  is  truly  definitive,  it  may  be  reduced  to  a  brief 
element, — often  to  a  single  word,  which  may  be  incorporated 
in  the  first  clause. 

Example. — Lafayette  was  intrusted  by  Washington  with  all 
kinds  of  services  .  .  .  the  laborious  and  complicated,  which 
required  skill  and  patience;  the  perilous,  that  demanded  nerve. — 
Everett. 

*'In  this  example,  it  is  obvious  that  the  clause  introduced 
by  'which'  and  the  one  beginning  with  'that'  stand  in  precisely 
the  same  relation,  the  change  being  made  for  euphony.  It  is 
obvious  also  that  both  dependent  clauses  are  supplemental 
rather  than  definitive.  In  both  of  these  clauses,  therefore, 
tliere  is  an  added  thought,  and  this  gives  the  relation  of 
momentary  completeness  at  the  words  'complicated'  and  'peril- 
ous.' 

"The  ear,  under  the  guidance  of  the  logical  and  rhetorical 
insight,  gives  a  much  more  sensitive  and  more  accurate  punc- 
tuation than  can  be  indicated  by  printer's  marks  or  gram- 
marian's rules.  Not  the  words,  nor  the  grammatical 
elements,  nor  the  customary  and  traditional  rendering, 
determine  grouping  or  inflection,  but  rather  the  speaker's 
immediate  purpose  at  the  moment  of  the  utterance. 

"The  principle  of  momentary  completeness  is  strikingly 
exemplified  in  the  case  of  a  'division  of  the  question'  in  parlia- 
mentary proceedings.  Division  is  called  for  because  each  item 
is  considered  as  separately  important  enough  to  demand  the 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  65 

entire  attention.  The  same  is  often  true  in  the  announce- 
ment of  a  proposition  containing  several  different  elements,  or 
of  a  text  of  Scripture  suggesting  many  separate  thoughts. " 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  rule  so  often  given,  that 
''the  voice  should  rise  at  a  comma,"  is  ridiculous.  It  often 
does,  it  is  true, — not  because  of  the  comma,  but  because  of 
the  motive. 

The  purpose  of  the  following  drills  is  not  to  train  the  stu- 
dent in  the  manner  of  making  inflections,  but  rather  to 
impress  upon  his  mind  the  fact  that  rhetorically  a  sentence 
may  be  complete  even  though  the  point  of  completion  be  not 
marked  by  a  full  stop.  In  other  words,  the  drill  is  one  in 
mental,  rather  than  vocal,  technique. 

The  student  must  determine  the  purpose  in  every  case,  and 
then  trust  his  voice  to  manifest  that  purpose. 

Hence!  home,*  you  idle  creatures,  get  you  home. 

Speak,  what  trade  art  thou? 

Where  is  thy  leather  apron,  and  thy  rule?  '" 

You  blocks,  you  stones,  you  worse  than  senseless  things. 

Many  a  time  and  oft 
Have  you  climb' d  up  to  walls  and  battlements, 
To  towers  and  windows,  yea,  to  chimney-tops. 
Your  infants  in  your  arms,  and  there  have  sat 


To  see  great  Pompey  pass  the  streets  of  Rome. 

Be  gone ! 
Run  to  your  houses,  fall  upon  your  knees, 
Pray  to  the  gods  to  intermit  the  plague 
That  needs  must  light  on  this  ingratitude. 

Then,  Brutus,  I  have  much  mistook  your  passion ; 
By  means  whereof  this  breast  of  mine  hath  buried 
Thoughts  of  great  value,  worthy  cogitations. 

♦The  falling"  inflection  may  properly  be  given  on  the  italicised  words ; 
but  the  latter  are  not  therefore  necessarily  to  be  emphasized. 


66  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

I  was  born  free  as  Caesar,  so  were  you ; 
We  both  have  fed  as  well,  and  we  can  both 
Endure  the  winter's  cold  as  well  as  he. 

His  coward  lips  did  from  their  color  fly, 

And  that  same  eye  whose  bend  doth  awe  the  world 

Did  lose  his  lustre. 

Ye  gods,  it  doth  amaze  me, 
A  man  of  such  a  feeble  temper  should 

.  .  .  bear  the  palm  alone. 

Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride  the  narrow  world 
Like  a  Colossus,  and  we  petty  men 
Walk  under  his  huge  legs  and  peep  about 
To  find  ourselves  dishonorable  graves. 

Let  me  have  men  about  me  that  are  fat, 
Sleek-headed  men,  and  such  as  sleep  o'  nights. 

Seldom  he  smiles,  and  smiles  in  such  a  sort, 
As  if  he  mocked  himself. 

Such  men  as  he  be  never  at  heart's  ease 
Whiles  they  behold  a  greater  than  themselves, 
And  therefore  are  they  very  dangerous. 

Come  on  my  right  hand,  for  this  ear  is  deaf 
And  tell  me  truly  what  thou  think' st  of  him. 

Why,  there  was  a  crown  offered  him;  and,  being  offered  him, 
he  put  it  by  with  the  back  of  his  hand,  thus. 

I  can  as  well  be  hanged  as  tell  the  manner  of  it ;  it  was  mere 
foolery,  I  did  not  mark  it. 

You  look  pale,  and  gaze. 
And  put  on  fear,  and  case  yourself  in  wonder, 
To  see  the  strange  impatience  of  the  heavens. 

Stand  close  awhile,  for  here  comes  one  in  haste. 

How  that  might  change  his  nature,  there's  the  question. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  67 

But  when  he  once  attains  the  upmost  round 
He  then  unto  the  ladder  turns  his  back, 
Looks  in  the  clouds,  scorning  the  base  degrees 
By  which  he  did  ascend. 

...  let  us  not  break'  with  him, 
For  he  will  never  follow  anything 
That  other  men  begin.  ^ 

It  is  often  a  matter  of  judgment  whether  we  shall  interpret 
a  phrase  as  momentarily  complete  or  as  pointing  forward, 
incomplete.  Sometimes  either  interpretation  would  be 
acceptable,  but,  as  a  rule,  one  conveys  the  author's  intention 
better  than  the  other.  For  instance,  in  the  following  extract 
from  The  American  Indian^  the  author  says : 

As  a  race  they  have  withered  from  the  land.  Their  arrows  are 
broken,  their  springs  have  dried  up,  their  cabins  are  in  the  dust. 
Their  council-fire  has  long  since  gone  out  on  the  shore,  and  their 
war-cry  is  fast  fading  to  the  untrodden  West. 

It  seems  clear  that  in  the  second  sentence  the  author  is 
not  enumerating  minor  details  which  form  one  larger 
whole,  but  that  each  statement  is  a  sentence  complete  in 
itself,  and  so  important  that  spontaneously  we  separate  it  from 
the  others  not  merely  by  a  pause  but  by  a  downward  inflection. 

If  we  were  saying  to  another,  "I  bought  my  children 
firecrackers,  torpedoes,  skyrockets,  and  pinwheels,"we  should 
use  rising  inflections  until  we  closed  our  sentence  on  "pin- 
wheels."  But  it  would  be  quite  natural  for  the  child,  greatly 
excited  by  his  presents,  to  use  the  downward  inflection  on  those 
words,  and  these  inflections  would  mark  the  importance,  to  him, 
of  each  separate  gift.  He  would  say,  "I  have  firecrackers, — 
torpedoes, — skyrockets, — and  pinwheels. " 

Circumflex  inflections  are  the  expression  of  complex 
mental  states.     Note  this  in  the  following  examples : 


68  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Not  inferior  to  this  was  the  wisdom  of  him  who  resolved  to 
shear  the  wolf.  What,  shear  a  wolf!  Have  you  considered  the 
danger  of  the  attempt?  No,  says  the  madman,  I  have  considered 
nothing  but  the  right. 

Oh,  no!    He  wouldn't  accept  a  bribe;  of  course  not. 

You  meant  no  harm;  oh,  no :  your  thoughts  are  innocent. 

It  isn't  the  secret  I  care  about ;  it's  the  slight,  Mr.  Caudle. 

Difficult  as  is  the  subject  of  circumflex  inflections,  the 
difficulty  is  very  much  reduced  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  the 
elements  which  compose  them  are  the  same  as  those  with 
which  we  have  been  dealing.  In  Longfellow's  King  Robert 
of  Sicily^  the  Angel  asks  the  king,  "Who  art  thou?"  To 
which  Eobert  answers,  sneeringly,  "I  am  the  King."  Now, 
on  the  word  "I"  we  may  expect  to  hear  the  rising  circumflex 
(composed  of  a  falling  followed  by  a  rising  inflection)  which 
the  following  paraphrase  will  justify :  He  dares  ask  me  who 
I  am !  What  audacity !  Do  you  dare  ask  such  a  question  of 
me?  Would  you  know  who  I  am?  Perhaps  a  diagram  will 
make  this  clearer : 

He  \.  y^  etc. 

dares   ^v  y^   am, 

ask    \v  y^   I 

me     X,,^  I  y^    know 

who      N.  y^  not 

I     \^^  y^    you 

am.     \,/^     Do 

Professor  Chamberlain  has  made  this  question  so  clear  that 
we  quote  from  him  again : 

'* Paraphrase  for  Complex  Eelations:  These,  as  already 
seen,  are  cases  of  combined  ideas,  expressed  by  composite 
motions  of  the  voice,  called  circumflexes.  In  order  to  justify 
such  double  motion  of  the  voice,  the  mind  of  the  reader  needs 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  69 

to  recognize  the  combination  implied  in  the  words.  He  will 
make  himself  surer  of  this  by  analyzing,  or  separating  into 
its  component  parts,  each  composite  idea. 

Be  not  too  tame  neither. 

"Here  is  a  plain  implication  of  one  member  of  the  antithe- 
sis; and  it  might  be  expanded  thus.  As  you  are  not  to  be  too 
extravagant  in  your  expression,  so  you  are  not  to  be  too  quiet. 

''This  combination  of  separable  elements  might  be  illus- 
trated by  diagram,  thus : 

extravagant, 
be 
to 

^  to 

be 
too 
'^y\''  \.      quiet. 

/  Be  not  too  tame  neither. 

^'Here  the  negative,  or  anticipatory,  clause  is,  in  the  con- 
demned form,  suggested  by  the  negative,  or  rising,  part  of  the 
circumflex ;  the  positive  clause,  by  the  falling  part  of  the  tone. 
"In  a  similar  way  two  separate  elements,  both  of  which  are 
verbally  expressed,  may  be  combined  in  one  elliptical  or  com- 
plex dause ;  e.g.: 

I  ( ome  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him. 

^ '  inverting  clauses : 

Caesar.       but        I 
praise 
to 
not 

"^'•^ 
A 
I  come  to  bury  Caesar, 


70  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

"The  same  method  of  illustration  may  be  extended  ad 
libitum. ' ' 

There  is  one  feature  of  circumflex  inflection  somewhat  com- 
mon but  seldom  treated,  the  understanding  of  which  is  very 
helpful  to  the  teacher.  This  feature  is  observed  when  there 
are  assertion  and  incompleteness  in  the  same  word.  For 
instance,  "John  Brown,"  being  the  important  idea  in  the 
following  sentence,  would  be  uttered  with  a  falling  inflection ; 
but  since  the  mind  is  glancing  forward  from  "Brown"  the 
rising  inflection  would  mark  that  fact.  Hence,  the  two  states 
of  mind  would  be  manifested  in  a  combined  inflection  the 
psychology  of  which  should  now  be  clear. 

John  Brown  was  one  of  the  most  striking  figures  of  the  anti- 
slavery  agitation. 

We  have  the  same  phenomenon  on  the  word  "Sicily"  in 
the  following  extract,  except  that  the  falling  inflection  is  on 
the  first  two  syllables  and  the  rising  on  the  third : 

Robert  of  Sicily,  brother  of  Pope  Urbane 
And  Valmond,  Emperor  of  AUemaine 


.  .  .  heard  the  priests  chant  the  Magnificat. 

The  extent,  or  width,  of  the  inflection  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  collateral  thinking.  Thus  a  simple  question  as, 
"Is  your  name  Brown?"  will  take  an  inflection  of  about  a 
third  of  the  musical  scale,  while  the  inflection  of  Cassius  on 
"Chastisement,"  in  the  example  previously  given,  will  be 
probably  a  full  octave.  The  length  of  the  inflection  is 
f^xplained  by  the  philosophy  of  "Time" :  it  is  a  matter  of  the 
importance  or  non-importance  of  the  idea.  The  direction  of 
the  inflection  is  explained  by  the  philosophy  of  ' '  Pitch '  * :  it  is 
determined  by  the  purpose,  or  motive. 

Varied  melody  is  found  in  the  speech  of  eyc**y-'^^v  life. 
Note  how  the  voice  continually  runs  up  and  down  in  a  con- 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  71 

versation  on  commonplace  topics.  The  moment  the  subject 
grows  serious  and  dignified,  the  discriminative  elements 
largely  disappear  and  with  them  the  varied  melody ;  until  in 
solemn  prayer,  invocation,  and  certain  forms  of  meditation  in 
the  absence  of  desire  to  insist  on  the  importance  of  any  one 
word,  or  the  absence  of  the  purpose  to  discriminate  between 
one  phase  and  another,  we  approach  very  close  to  the  mono- 
tone. Let  us  remember,  however,  that  it  is  not  the  emotion 
as  such  that  affects  the  melody,  but  the  mental  content  of  the 
emotion. 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  see  the  application  of  the 
foregoing  principles,  an  analysis  of  a  complete  poem  is 
appended.  There  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion  concerning 
details,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  value  of  this 
analysis  for  the  student  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  should  teach 
him  that  some  interpretation  is  to  be  definitely  decided  on. 
The  average  reading  is  haphazard ;  so  that  one  must  gain  a 
great  deal  through  the  mental  drill  necessary  to  decide  the 
various  questions  that  come  up  in  the  course  of  such  an 
analysis  as  that  here  undertaken.  It  is  a  common  experience 
to  hear  a  pupil  read  a  passage  one  way  at  one  time  and  a 
different  way  at  another.  It  would  therefore  seem  to  be 
better  to  read  a  passage  incorrectly  with  some  reason  behind 
the  error,  than  to  read  it  correctly  as  a  matter  of  accident, 
with  the  chance  that  the  next  time  it  is  read  the  expression 
will  be  quite  different.  The  greatest  value  of  such  analyses  is 
found  in  the  improvement  in  the  student 's  power  of  discrimi- 
nation. The  melody^  which  manifests  the  purpose^  the  motive^ 
is  the  very  life  of  good  reading. 

Up  from  the  meadows  rich  with  corn, 
Clear  in  the  cool  September  morn, 

The  clustered  spires  of  Frederick  stand 
Green- walled  by  the  hills  of  Maryland. 


72  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Round  about  them  orchards  sweep,  5 

Apple  and  peach  tree  fruited  deep, 

Fair  as  the  garden  of  the  Lord 

To  the  eyes  of  the  famished  rebel  horde, 

On  that  pleasant  morn  of  the  early  fall 

When  Lee  marched  over  the  mountain  wall ;  10 

Over  the  mountains  winding  down. 
Horse  and  foot,  into  Frederick  town,  a 

Forty  flags  with  their  silver  stars, 
Forty  flags  with  their  crimson  bars. 

Flapped  in  the  morning  wind :  the  sun  15 

Of  noon  looked  down,  and  saw  not  one. 

Up  rose  old  Barbara  Frietchie  then, 
Bowed  with  her  fourscore  years  and  ten ; 

Bravest  of  all  in  Frederick  town, 

She  took  up  the  flag  the  men  hauled  down ;  20 

In  her  attic  window  the  staff  she  set, 
To  show  that  onejieart  was  loyal  yet. 

Up  the  street  came  the  rebel  tread, 
Stonewall  Jackson  riding  ahead. 

Under  his  slouched  hat  left  and  right  25 

He  glanced  i  the  old  flag  met  his  sight. 

*'Halt!" — the  dust-brown  ranks  stood  fast. 
"Fire!" — out  blazed  the  rifle-blast. 

It  shivered  the  window,  pane  and  sash ; 

It  rent  the  banner  with  seam  and  gash.  30 

Quick,  as  it  fell,  from  the  broken  staff 
Dame  Barbara  snatched  the  silken  scarf ; 

She  leaned  far  out  on  the  window-sill, 
And  shook  it  forth  with  a  royal  will. 

* 'Shoot,  if  you  must,  this  old  gray  head,  35 

But  spare  your  country's  flag,"  she  said. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  73 

A  shade  of  sadness,  a  blush  of  shame, 
Over  the  face  of  the  leader  came ; 

The  nobler  nature  within  him  stirred 

To  life  at  that  woman's  deed  and  word ;  40 

"Who  touches  a  hair  of  yon  gray  head 
Dies  like  a  dog  I    March  on!"  he  said. 

All  day  long  through  Frederick  street 
Sounded  the  tread  of  marching  feet : 

All  day  long  that  free  flag  tost  45 

Over  the  heads  of  the  rebel  host. 

Ever  its  torn  folds  rose  and  fell 

On  the  loyal  winds  that  loved  it  well ; 

And  through  the  hill-gaps  sunset  light 

Shone  over  it  with  a  warm  good-night.  50 

Barbara  Frietchie's  work  is  o'er, 

And  the  Rebel  rides  on  his  raids  no  more. 

Honor  to  hor !  and  let  a  tear 

Fall,  for  her  sake,  on  Stonewall's  bier. 

Over  Barbara  Frietchie's  grave,  55 

Flag  of  Freedom  and  Union,  wave ! 

Peace  and  order  and  beauty  draw 
Round  thy  symbol  of  light  and  law ; 

And  ever  the  stars  above  look  down 
On  thy  stars  below  in  Frederick  town !  60 

— Barbara  Frietehie.     Whittier. 

1.  3. — ISTote  momentary  completeness  on  "Frederick." 
1.  1-3. — These  lines  are  anticipative. 

1.  5,  6. — Each    line    a    complete    affirmative    statement, 
although  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  poem  only  by  commas. 
1.  7. — "Lord,"  momentary  completeness. 
1.  8. — Kising   inflection   on  "horde,"  since   the  sense  is 


74  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

incomplete  until  we  come  to  "wall."  A  good  example,  since 
lines  9  and  10  would  make  very  good  sense  without  the  succeed- 
ing two. 

1.  12. — Momentary  completeness  on  "foot." 

1.  13-14.— The  motive  being  the  same  in  both  lines,  note 
that  the  melody  is  the  same. 

1.  16. — "Noon"  is  contrasted  with  "morning";  hence 
the  rising  circumflex  on  the  former  word. 

1.  17. — Transition  here.  Observe  the  higher  key  com- 
mencing on  "up." 

1.  19. — This  line  is  anticipative.  Supply  "being" 
before  "bravest,"  and  note  how  the  temptation  to  use  the  fall- 
ing inflection  on  "town"  disappears. 

1.  21. — Optional  rising  or  falling  inflection  on  "set." 

1.  23.— Transition  in  key.     Why? 

L  24. — What  difference  in  motive  would  be  conveyed  by 
rising  and  falling  inflections  on  "Jackson"? 

1.  25-28.— Transitions  on  "under,"  "halt,"  "the," 
"fire,"  "out."     Explain. 

1.  29. — Note  the  comma  after  "window."  What  is  its 
function? 

1.  31. — Observe  that  "as  it  fell"  is  subordinate.  Many 
read  this  couplet  incorrectly.  The  idea  is  not  "as  it  fell  from 
the  broken  staff,"  but  that  she  snatched  it  "from  the  broken 
staff." 

1.  33. — Anticipative.  ' 

1.  35. — Transition. 

1.  37.— (1)  Observe  how  the  key  lowers.  Why?  (2) 
What  shades  of  meaning  are  conveyed  by  the  following  read- 
ings :  «,  momentary  completeness  on  "sadness"  and  "shame" ; 
^,  anticipation  on  "sadness,"  momentary  completeness  on 
"shame."     Which  do  you  prefer?     Why? 

1.  41. — Transition.     Is  the  key  higher  or  lower? 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  76 

1.  43-44,  45-46,  47-48.— Why  is  the  melody  about  the 
same  in  these  couplets? 

1.  49-50. — Many  opportunities  for  choice  of  inflection  on 
*'hill-gaps,"  ''light,"  "over." 

1.  51. — Rising  or  falling  inflection  on  "o'er"?     Why? 
1.  56. — No  momentary  completeness  on  "Union."     Why: 
1.  59,  60. — Contrast  between  "above"  and  "below." 
No  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  analysis  to  do  more  than 
direct  attention  to  the  portions  of  the  poem  in  which  inflec- 
tion and  melody  are  affected  by  the  interpretation. 

PEDAGOGICAL    ASPECTS. 

Much  of  what  has  been  said  concerning  the  pedagogical 
aspects  of  the  discussion  of  "Time"  may  be  repeated  here. 
Drills  in  inflections  as  such  are  of  very  little  value  and 
potentially  very  harmful.  Occasionally  we  hear  the  argu- 
ment that  a  papil  has  no  ear  for  inflections,  and  that  the  drill 
is  to  train  his  ear.  Most  pupils  have  no  difficulty  in  making 
proper  inflections,  so  that  for  them  class  drills  are  time  wasted; 
for  those  whose  reading  is  monotonous,  because  of  lack  of 
melodic  variety*,  the  best  drills  are  those  which  teach  them  to 
make  a  careful  analysis  of  the  sentences,  and  those  which 
awaken  them  to  the  necessity  of  impressing  the  thought  upon 
others.  We  deceive  ourselves  when  we  proceed  to  correct  the 
error  of  monotony  in  any  mechanical,  artificial  way. 

We  have  learned  that,  when  a  pupil  has  the  proper  motive 
in  mind  and  is  desirous  of  conveying  his  intention  to  another, 
a  certain  melody  will  always  manifest  that  intention.  The 
melody,  then,  is  the  criterion  of  the  pupil's  purpose.  We 
expect  a  certain  melody  with  certain  phrases.  When  that 
melody  is  heard,  we  are  scarcely  conscious  of  its  presence; 
when  another  is  heard,  we  are  struck  as  by  a  discord  of  music 
when  we  expect  concord.     The  moment  a  pupil  loses  sight  of 


76  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

the  exact  meaning  of  a  phrase  and  its  relation  to  the  other 
phrases,  that  moment  his  melody  betrays  him.  Now  the 
teacher  must  be  able  to  translate  the  false  melody.  He  must 
determine  the  pupil's  purpose  (or  absence  of  any  purpose) 
behind  the  incorrect  melody,  remove  the  wrong  purpose,  put 
in  its  stead  the  true  purpose,  and  rely  upon  natural  instincts 
to  do  the  rest.  Herein  lies  the  great  value  to  the  teacher  of 
a  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of  the  criterion  of  pitch. 

Suppose  a  pupil  reads,  "Up  from  the  meadows  green 
with  corn,"  using  arising  circumflex  on  "meadows."  This 
would  show  at  once  that  "meadows"  was  contrasted  in  his 
mind  with  something  else.  Eemove  the  contrast,  direct  his 
mind  forward  from  that  word  to  the  next  phrase,  and  the 
proper  melody  will  come.  Some  teachers,  especially  those 
e^igaged  in  the  teaching  of  young  children,  have  a  somewhat 
patronizing  melody  in  all  they  say  and  read.  This  melody  is 
overflowing  with  circumflexes,  which  are  soon  copied  by  the 
class.  Let  the  teacher  free  himself  from  this  patronizing 
mental  condition  and  talk  to  the  children  as  if  they  were  men 
and  women,  and  the  peculiar  melody  will  disappear  from  the 
voices  of  both  teacher  and  pupil.  It  is  ratker  difficult  to 
present  this  melody  in  graphic  form,  but  the  following  dia- 
gi^am  may  prove  suggestive: 

Now  let  us  take  our 


children  all  books 

It  is  hardly  to  be  believed  that  there  is  so  much  ignorance 
as  to  the  meaning  of  inflection.  During  the  past  two  years, 
in  schools  of  our  largest  cities,  the  author  has  heard  teachers 
reprimand  their  pupils  for  allowing  their  voices  "to  fall  at  a 
comma."      As  if  commas  were  intended  to  indicate  vocal 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  77 

expression !  Once  when  a  bright  lad  used  a  falling  inflection 
on  ''want,"  in  such  a  sentence  as  ''What  do  you  want?"  a  class 
nearly  shook  their  hands  off  in  their  endeavors  to  attract  the 
teacher's  attention,  in  order  that,  when  he  said,  "What's 
wrong?"  they  might  shout  at  the  top  of  their  voices,  "He  let 
his  voice  down  at  a  question  mark." 

One  of  the  commonest  of  misunderstandings  that  prevail 
among  us,  is  that  the  rising  inflection  is  always  to  be  given 
upon  words  preceding  commas,  and  also  that  it  must  never  be 
given  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.  It  is  hoped  that  these  fallacies 
have  been  entirely  exploded,  and  that  the  teacher  has  learned 
that  motive,  and  motive  only,  governs  the  inflection.  We  used 
to  be  told  to  count  one  at  a  comma,  two  at  a  semi-colon,  and 
four  at  a  period.  Such  admonitions  are  exactly  on  a  par  with 
those  just  referred  to. 

Teachers  should  bear  in  mind  that  pupils  do  not  need  to 
have  a  musical  ear  in  order  to  read  with  qorrect  melody.  As 
we  have  stated  again  and  again,  melody  is  the  result  of 
varying  tension,  and  that  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  ability  to 
recognize  tones.  With  singing  this  is  different.  There  we 
must  strike  certain  notes,  and  ear  training  is  necessary;  but 
speech  melody  is  instinctive,  and  all  that  is  necessary  for  its 
development  is  mental  training  and  practice  in  reading — not 
voice  drills  as  such. 

The  melody  of  long  sentences  presents  a  case  of  peculiar 
difficulty.  Where  the  sentence  is  long,  especially  where  it  is 
long  and  involved,  the  pupil's  melody  is  often  faulty  because 
he  cannot  hold  the  thought  in  mind  from  beginning  to  end. 
Pupils  should  be  trained  on  sentences  specially  chosen  to 
develop  their  powers  of  continuous  thinking.  These  sen- 
tences should  be  carefully  analyzed  and  thoroughly  discussed 
before  reading.  The  following  examples,  while  too  difficult 
for  younger  pupils,  will  afford  good  practice  for  the  teacher : 


78  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

While  the  Union  lasts,  we  have  high,  exciting,  gratifying  pros- 
pects spread  out  before  us,  for  us  and  our  children.  Beyond  that  I 
seek  not  to  penetrate  the  veil.  God  grant  that  in  my  day,  at 
least,  that  curtain  may  not  rise,  God  grant  that  on  my  vision 
never  may  be  opened  what  lies  behind.  When  my  eyes  shall  be 
turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the  sun  in  heaven,  may  I  not  see 
him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once 
glorious  Union ;  on  States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent ;  on  a 
land  rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  in  fraternal 
blood  ?  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance,  rather,  behold  the 
gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known  and  honored  through- 
out the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced,  its  arms  and  trophies 
streaming  in  their  original  luster,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted, 
not  a  single  star  obscured — bearing  for  its  motto  no  such  miserable 
interrogatory  as,  "What  is  all  this  worth?"  nor  those  other  words  of 
delusion  and  folly,  "Liberty  first,  and  Union  afterward;"  but 
everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of  living  light,  blazing  on 
all  its  ample  folds  as  they  float  over  the  sea  and  over  the  land,  and 
in  every  wind  under  the  whole  heavens;  that  other  sentiment, 
dear  to  every  true  American  heart — "Liberty  and  Union,  now  and 
forever,  one  and  inseparable." — Reply  to  Hayne.    Webster. 

[N'ofce  that  the  force  of  "may  I  not  see  him"  continues  to 
"fraternal  blood,"  and  consequently  that  there  should  be 
rising  inflections  on  "Union,"  "dissevered,"  "discordant," 
"belligerent,"  "feuds,"  and  "blood. "  And  note  further  that 
"What  is  all  this  worth?"  and  "Liberty  first,  and  Union 
afterward, ' '  are  anticipati ve  and  hence  will  take  a  rising  inflec- 
tion on  "worth"  and  "afterward." 

At  Atri  in  Abruzzo,  a  small  town 
Of  ancient  Roman  date  but  scant  renown, 
One  of  those  little  places  that  have  run 
Half  up  the  hill,  beneath  a  blazing  sun, 
And  then  sat  down  to  rest,  as  if  to  say, 
"I  climb  no  further  upward,  come  what  may," 
The  Re  Giovanni,  now  unknown  to  fame. 
So  many  monarchs  since  have  borne  the  name. 
Had  a  great  bell  hung  in  the  market  place. 

— The  Bell  of  Atri.    Longfellow. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  PITCH  79 

The  town  would  have  used  a  falling  inflection  on  *'may" 
because  for  it  the  sense  would  have  been  completed  with  that 
word;  but  with  us  this  phrase  is  subordinate,  and  hence  the 
inflection  on  "may"  will  be  rising. 

And  as  a  hungry  lion  who  has  made 

A  prey  of  some  large  beast — a  horned  stag 

Or  mountain  goat — rejoices,  and  with  speed 

Devours  it,  though  swift  hounds  and  sturdy  youths 

Press  on  his  flank,  so  Menelaus  felt 

Great  joy  when  Paris,  of  the  godlike  form, 

Appeared  in  sight,  for  now  he  thought  to  wreak 

His  vengeance  on  the  guilty  one,  and  straight 

Sprang  from  his  car  to  earth  with  all  his  arms. 

—The  Iliad,  Book  II.    Homer  (Bryant). 

But  when  public  taste  seems  plunging  deeper  and  deeper  into 
degradation  day  by  day,  and  when  the  press  universally  exerts 
such  power  as  it  possesses  to  direct  the  feeling  of  the  nation  more 
completely  to  all  that  is  theatrical,  affected,  and  false  in  art; 
while  it  vents  its  ribald  buffooneries  on  the  most  exalted  truth, 
and  the  highest  ideal  of  landscape,  that  this  or  any  other  age  has 
ever  witnessed,  it  becomes  the  imperative  duty  of  all  who  have  any 
perception  or  knowledge  of  what  is  really  great  in  art,  and  any 
desire  for  its  advancement  in  England,  to  come  fearlessly  forward, 
regardless  of  such  individual  interests  as  are  likely  to  be  injured 
by  the  knowledge  of  what  is  good  and  right,  to  declare  and 
demonstrate,  wherever  they  exist,  the  essence  and  the  authority  of 
the  beautiful  and  the  true. — Modem  Painters.    Ruskin. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    CRITEEIOi^    OF   QUALITY 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  the  criteria  of  states 
essentially  intellectual.  *'Time"  has  to  do  with  the  extent  of 
the  thought;  "Pitch"  with  the  purpose.  Quality  manifests 
emotional  states.  By  Quality  we  mean  that  subtle  element 
in  the  voice  by  which  is  expressed  at  one  time  tenderness,  at 
another  harshness,  at  another  awe,  and  so  on  through  the 
whole  gamut  of  feeling. 

In  order  to  prove  that  the  quality  {timhre,  the  French  call 
it)  of  the  voice  is  the  result  of  emotional  conditions,  we  must 
first  understand  what  we  may  term  the  physics  of  quality. 
The  number  of  air  waves  striking  the  ear  in  a  given  time 
determines  the  pitch ;  the  width  of  the  waves  determines  the 
volume  of  sound;  the  shape  of  the  waves  determines  the 
quality.  But  how  is  the  shape  of  air  waves  affected?  It 
would  take  us  too  far  from  our  subject  to  discuss  this  question 
in  detail.  *  Let  it  suffice  that  the  shape  of  the  air  wave,  and 
hence  the  quality,  is  dependent  upon  the  texture  of  the  vibra- 
ting body.  We  recognize  at  once  the  different  qualities 
respectively  of  the  flute,  piano,  violin,  harp  or  cornet ;  it  is  the 
difference  in  the  texture  of  the  vibrating  substances  that 
enables  us  to  do  this.  Why  will  the  artist  pay  thousands  of 
dollars  for  a  Stradivarius  or  Cremona  violin?  JSTot  because  of 
its  age,  but  because  of  the  quality  of  the  tone  he  can  bring  out 
on  that  instrument,  which  is  impossible  on  other  makes  of 
violins.  The  fashioners  of  these  old  instruments  possessed 
a  secret  of  treating  or  seasoning  the  wood  that  gave  to  their 

♦See  TyndaH  on  *'  Sound;  "  or  Prof.  Halm  on  the  same  subject. 

80 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  81 

products  a  tone  quality  the  violin-makers  of  to-day  endeavor 
in  vain  to  reproduce.  This  treatment  aifected  the  texture  of 
the  wood,  and  hence  the  quality. 

To  him  who  plays  upon  the  human  instrument  of  the  voice, 
is  given  a  great  advantage  over  other  artists.  He  can  change 
the  quality  of  his  tone  almost  at  will,  while  they  can  only 
approximate  these  changes.  The  tone  as  it  comes  from  the 
vocal  bands  is  comparatively  colorless,  but  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  reinforcing  cavities  (the  larynx,  pharynx,  mouth, 
and  nares),  and  the  texture  of  their  membranes,  determine 
the  quality  of  the  tone  that  reaches  the  ear.  (  Now,  the  size 
and  shape  of  some  of  these  can  be  changed  at  will,  and  are 
often  modified  unconsciously  by  emotion.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  texture  of  the  surface  against  which  the  tone 
impinges  as  it  comes  from  the  laiynx.  The  shape  of  the  nares 
and  the  texture  of  its  membrane  are  virtually  fixed,  as  is  the 
texture  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  the  pharynx.  Herein  is 
the  explanation  of  the  individuality  of  voices.  But  the  shape 
of  the  mouth  and  of  the  pharynx  may  be  considerably  modified 
by  the  action  of  the  tongue,  the  raising,  lowering,  or  contract- 
ing of  the  larynx,  and  the  movements  of  the  soft  palate.  It 
is,  therefore,  clear  that  the  quality  of  the  voice  is  partly  fixed 
and  partly  changeable. 

Before  we  proceed  to  discuss  the  eifect  of  emotion  upon 
the  quality,  we  must  first  recognize  that  voice  defects  are  of 
three  kinds :  (1)  Those  arising  from  disease  or  accident,  such 
as  catarrh,  obstructions  in  the  nose,  enlarged  tonsils,  broken 
nose,  and  many  others.  These  require  medical  or  surgical 
treatment.  (2)  Those  arising  from  congenital  defects,  which 
can  be  only  partially  removed,  such  as  cleft  palate,  abnormally 
narrow  nares,  and  the  like.  (3)  Those  arising  out  of  the  tem- 
perament of  the  man  and  the  improper  use  of  his  voice. 

It  should   now   be  plain  that   when   we  say  that   emo- 


82  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

tion  affects  the  quality  of  the  tone,  we  mean  the  peculiar 
quality  of  a  particular  man.  If  a  speaker's  voice  is  nasal, 
we  do  not  claim  that  that  quality  is  expressive  of  any  emotion. 
On  the  contrary,  nasal  quality  is  the  distinguishing  character- 
istic of  his  voice,  but  that  quality  can  be  modified  by  emotion. 
In  other  words,  there  can  be  a  nasal -tender  quality,  or  a  nasal- 
harsh  quality,  the  tender  or  harsh  feeling  accounting  for  the 
difference. 

Paul  Heyse  has  said,  *'The  voice  is  the  man."  What  did 
he  mean  by  that?  He  did  not  mean  that  a  throaty  voice 
indicated  one  temperament,  and  a  nasal  voice  another,  but 
that  the  emotional  man,  the  spiritual  man,  has  a  certain 
texture  of  muscle.  This  texture  affects  the  quality  of  his 
natural  voice,  whatever  that  voice  may  be,  and  consequently 
the  quality  of  the  voice  manifests  the  man.  If  we  will 
interpret  this  dictum  broadly,  no  fault  will  be  found  with  it. 
Who  does  not  recognize  the  blustering  man  by  his  bellowing 
tone?  the  fawning  hypocrite  by  his  oily  quality?  the  aggres- 
sive, assertive  individual  by  his  harsh  guttural?  In  all  proba- 
bility, Heyse  meant  more  than  quality,  in  the  sense  in  which 
we  use  it  here;  but  granting  this,  his  saying  is  of  very  wide 
application  even  in  this  restricted  realm. 

How  does  emotion  affect  the  quality  of  the  voice?  Emo- 
tion is  essentially  a  muscular  condition.  This  condition  is 
determined  by  the  amount  of  nervous  energy  sent  to  the 
muscles,  and  this  energy  determines  the  muscular  texture. 
Tender  emotions  mean  tender  texture,  a  relaxed  condition  of 
the  muscles;  while  harsh  quality  is  the  result  not  only  of 
throat  contraction  (change  in  the  shape  of  the  reinforcing 
cavity)  but  of  constricted  muscle,  harsh  texture.  This  is  all 
there  is  to  the  philosophy  of  "Quality." 

Dr.  Rush,  in  his  PMlosopliy  of  the  Human  Voice^  has 
named  many  of  these  qualities.     He  calls  them  Normal,  Oro- 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  83 

tund,  Guttural,  Pectoral,  Falsetto,  and  so  on;  and  mentions 
the  emotional  conditions  that  manifest  themselves  through 
these  various  forms.  On  the  whole,  his  classification  is  sound ; 
but  there  is  one  gross  error,  due  either  to  himself  or  his  fol- 
lowers, that  must  be  considered  here.  The  Orotund  (the 
enlarged  natural)  quality  is  more  than  a  loud  voice.  It  is  a 
full  voice  with  a  quality  that  cannot  better  be  described 
than  by  the  term  richness.  Many  students  have  endeavored 
to  obtain  this  quality  by  shouting,  or  by  holding  the  mouth 
as  if  gaping,  and  have  developed  only  loudness  without 
a  trace  of  soulfulness,  or  merely  a  round,  hollow  hot- 
potato-in-the-throat  kind  of  voice.  There  is  no  objection  to 
the  use  of  the  term  Orotund  to  characterize  that  rich,  full 
tone  suggestive  of  deep,  full,  enlarged  feeling;  but  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  loudness  is  not  only  not  necessary  for  the 
Orotund,  but  is  often  no  part  of  it  at  all.  The  Orotund,  as 
we  have  said,  is  that  quality  of  which  the  main  characteristics 
are  roundness  and  richness.  One  who  is  restricted  is  not 
likely  to  use  this  quality.  It  can  come  only  when  there  is  the 
utmost  freedom  of  the  entire  vocal  region.  When  we  have 
removed  the  tension  which  may  be  *'the  man,"  or  the  result 
of  bad  vocal  training,  we  shall  get  that  enlarged  quality,  which 
should  not,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  manifest  merely  the  larger 
emotional  states,  but  should  be  the  natural  voice  of  the 
speaker.  The  Orotund  manifests  dignity  above  all  else;  it 
manifests  the  large,  grand  spirit.  Of  course,  we  do  not  mean 
an  affected  Orotund,  but  an  easy,  large,  unrestricted  quality 
showing  the  largeness  of  the  soul  behind  it.  To  develop  this 
quality,  let  the  student  use  his  imagination.  Let  him  dwell 
for  a  long  time  upon  the  sublimity  and  grandeur  of  such  pas- 
sages as  follow.  Then  let  him  abandon  himself  to  the  emotion 
aroused  through  his  contemplation,  and  in  time  the  genuine 
Orotund  will  come.     And  so  only  can  it  come.     So  important 


84  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

is  this  phase  of  the  subject  that  we  repeat :  The  tone  express- 
ive of  elevated  feeling  "cannot  be  mechanically  produced,  or 
manufactured  independently  of  the  general  mental  and  physi- 
cal conditions."  The  imagination  must  lead,  otherwise  we 
shall  have  big  voices  without  big  quality.  That  peculiar 
quality  expressive  of  enlarged  feeling  is  not  necessarily  loud. 
In  fact,  the  voice  may  not  be  strong,  but,  at  the  same  time,  it 
may  suggest  grandeur  and  sublimity  far  better  than  a  voice  that 
has  sheer  loudness.  But,  if  the  student  will  practice  faithfully, 
he  may  be  assured  that  his  voice  will  receive  more  genuine 
training  through  these  exercises  than  through  a  whole  volume 
of  merely  technical  drills.  Develop  the  imagination,  the  soul, 
and  the  voice  will  grow  through  the  effort  of  the  soul  to  go 
out  in  expression.  But  let  him  avoid  mere  shouting  and  vocif- 
erating, even  if  he  never  gets  a  voice. 

If  the  student  has  not  the  imagination,  he  must  develop  it. 
There  are  many  loud  voices,  but  few  with  soulful  quality. 
But  what  avails  this  loudness?  Certainly  it  enables  one  to  be 
heard  above  the  din  of  voices  and  the  roar  of  the  waves,  but  it 
never  stirs  the  nobler  emotions  of  an  audience ;  and  unless  one 
can  do  that  he  is  anything  but  an  orator.  Mere  loudness  is 
rant — nothing  less. 

Many  students,  for  one  reason  or  another,  either  have  no 
ability  to  express  elevated  feeling  in  public,  or  repress  it  through 
diffidence  or  shyness.  Let  such  remember  that  we  are  con- 
stantly experiencing  and  expressing  this  feeling  in  our  every- 
day life ;  that  it  is  simply  an  enlargement  of  a  more  or  less 
commonplace  feeling;  and  let  him  begin  with  the  simple 
examples  that  are  set  down  first.  Any  one  can  say.  What  a 
lovely  day  this  is !  Well,  that  is  a  mild  form  of  elevated  feel- 
ing. Let  him  imagine  it  is  graduation  day,  and  that  rain  had 
been  threatening  to  fall  all  the  previous  night.  It  is  daylight 
now;  and  as  he  opens  his  eyes  and  looks  up  at  the  cloudless 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  85 

sky,  will  he  not  exclaim  with  elevated  feeling,  What  a  glorious 
day  we're  going  to  have! 

By  '* elevated  feelings"  one  must  not  understand  those 
only  that  are  serious  and  solemn.  Whenever  the  imagination 
is  enkindled  by  the  contemplation  of  what  is  large,  dignified, 
grand,  sublime,  the  emotions  are  stirred,  and  find  expression 
in  enlarged,  soulful  quality. 

Ay,  every  inch  a  king. 

Think  of  it!  a  building  that  could  hold  a  hundred  thousand 
people! 

Here  will  be  their  greatest  triumph. 

Who  shall  put  asunder  the  best  affections  of  the  heart? 

We  loved  the  land  of  our  adoption ! 

A  good  name  is  better  than  precious  ointment. 

Gird  up  thy  loins  now,  like  a  man. 

Comfort  ye  my  people. 

O  Zion,  that  bringest  good  tidings,  get  thee  up  into  the  high 
mountain ! 

He  is  as  honest  a  man  as  ever  breathed. 

Search  creation  round,  where  will  you  find  a  country  that 
presents  so  sublime  a  spectacle,  so  interesting  an  anticipation? 

Most  of  all,  fellow-citizens,  if  your  sons  ask  whose  example  they 
shall  imitate,  what  will  you  say?  For  you  know  well  it  is  not 
music,  nor  the  gymnasiums,  nor  the  schools,  that  mold  young 
men ;  it  is  much  more  the  public  proclamations,  the  public  example. 
If  you  take  one  whose  life  has  no  high  purpose,  one  who  mocks  at 
morals,  and  crown  him  in  the  theater,  every  boy  who  sees  it  is 
corrupted.  When  a  bad  man  suffers  his  deserts,  the  people  learn ; 
on  the  contrary,  when  a  man  votes  against  what  is  noble  and 
JUST,  and  then  comes  home  to  teach  his  son,  the  boy  will  very 
promptly  say,  "Your  lesson  is  impertinent  and  a  bore  "  Beware, 
therefore,  Athenians,  remembering  posterity  will  rejudge  your 
judgment,  and  that  the  character  of  a  city  is  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  men  it  crowns. 


86  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Right  forever  on  the  scaffold,  Wrong  forever  on  the  throne ; 
But  that  scaffold  sways  the  future,  and  behind  the  dim  unknown 
Standeth  God  within  the  shadow,  keeping  watch  above  his  own. 

Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State  1 
Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great ! 
Humanity,  with  all  its  fears, 
With  all  the  hopes  of  future  years 
Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate ! 
We  know  what  Master  laid  thy  keel, 
What  workmen  wrought  thy  ribs  of  steel. 
Who  made  each  mast,  and  sail,  and  rope, 
What  anvils  rang,  what  hammers  beat, 
In  what  a  forge,  and  what  a  heat, 
Were  shaped  the  anchors  of  thy  hope ! 

Fear  not  each  sudden  sound  and  shock; 

'Tis  of  the  wave,  and  not  the  rock ; 

'Tis  but  the  flapping  of  the  sail. 

And  not  a  rent  made  by  the  gale ! 

In  spite  of  rock  and  tempest's  roar. 

In  spite  of  false  lights  on  the  shore. 

Sail  on,  nor  fear  to  breast  the  sea ! 

Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  are  all  with  thee : 

Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  our  prayers,  our  tears. 

Our  faith  triumphant  o'er  our  fears. 

Are  all  with  thee, — are  all  with  thee! 

— The  Ship  of  State.    Longfellow. 

See  what  a  grace  was  seated  on  this  brow ; 
Hyperion's  curls;  the  front  of  Jove  himself; 
An  eye  like  Mars,  to  threaten  and  command; 
A  station  like  the  herald  Mercury 
New-lighted  on  a  heaven-kissing  hill ; 
A  combination  and  a  form  indeed, 
Where  every  god  did  seem  to  set  his  seal. 
To  give  the  world  assurance  of  a  man. 

Hamlet,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  4. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  87 

Awake,  my  soul !    Not  only  passive  praise 
Thou  owest ;  not  alone  these  swelling  tears, 
Mute  thanks,  and  secret  ecstasy.     Awake, 
Voice  of  ^weet  song !    Awake  my  heart,  Awake ! 
Green  vales  and  icy  cliffs,  all  join  my  hymn ! 

—Coleridge. 

And  the  evening  star  was  shining 

On  Schehallion's  distant  head. 
When  we  wiped  our  bloody  broadswords. 

And  returned  to  count  the  dead. 
There  we  found  him,  gashed  and  gory, 

Stretched  upon  the  cumbered  plain, 
As  he  told  us  where  to  seek  him, 

In  the  thickest  of  the  slain. 
And  a  smile  was  on  his  visage,  \ 

For  within  his  dying  ear 
Pealed  the  joyful  note  of  triumph. 

And  the  clansman's  clamorous  cheer: 
So,  amidst  the  battle's  thunder, 

Shot,  and  steel,  and  scorching  flame, 
In  the  glqrj  of  his  manhood 

Passed  the  spirit  of  the  Graeme! 

Open  wide  the  vaults  of  AthoU, 

Where  the  bones  of  heroes  rest, — 
Open  wide  the  hallowed  portals 

To  receive  another  guest ! 
Last  of  Scots  and  last  of  freemen, — 

Last  of  all  that  dauntless  race. 
Who  would  rather  die  unsullied 

Than  outlive  the  land's  disgrace! 

— Aytoun 

Bury  the  great  Duke 

With  an  empire's  lamentation, 

Let  us  bury  the  Great  Duke 

To  the  noise  of  the  mourning  of  a  mighty  nation, 

Mourning  when  their  leaders  fall. 

Warriors  carry  the  warrior's  pall. 

And  sorrow  darkens  hamlet  and  hall. 


88  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Where  shall  we  lay  the  man  whom  we  deploret 
Here,  in  streaming  London's  central  roar, 
Let  the  sound  of  those  he  wrought  for, 
And  the  feet  of  those  he  fought  for, 
Echo  round  his  bones  forevermore. 

Lead  out  the  pageant :  sad  and  slow, 

As  fits  a  universal  woe, 

Let  the  long,  long  procession  go. 

And  let  the  sorrowing  crowd  about  it  grow. 

And  let  the  mournful  martial  music  blow ; 

The  last  great  Englishman  is  low. 

All  is  over  and  done : 

Render  thanks  to  the  Giver, 

England,  for  thy  son. 

Let  the  bell  be  toU'd. 

Render  thanks  to  the  Giver, 

And  render  him  to  the  mold. 

Under  the  cross  of  gold 

That  shines  over  city  and  river, 

There  he  shall  rest  forever 

Among  the  wise  and  the  bold. 

Let  the  bell  be  toll' d: 

And  a  reverent  people  behold 

The  towering  car,  the  sable  steeds : 

Bright  let  it  be  with  his  blazon' d  deeds 

Dark  in  its  funeral  fold. 

Let  the  bell  be  toll'd:  - 

And  a  deeper  knell  in  the  heart  be  knoll' d; 

And  the  sound  of  the  sorrowing  anthem  roll'd 

Thro'  the  dome  of  the  golden  cross ; 

And  the  volleying  cannon  thunder  his  loss; 

He  knew  their  voices  of  old. 

For  many  a  time  in  many  a  clime 

His  captain's  ear  has  heard  them  boom. 

Bellowing  victory,  bellowing  doom : 

When  he  with  those  deep  voices  wrought, 

Guarding  realms  and  kings  from  shame ; 

With  those  deep  voices  our  dead  captain  taught 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  89 

The  tyrant,  and  asserts  his  claim 
In  that  dread  sound  to  the  great  name 
Which  he  has  worn  so  pure  of  blame, 
In  praise  and  in  dispraise  the  same, 
A  man  of  well-attemper' d  frame. 
O  civic  Muse,  to  such  a  name. 
To  such  a  name  for  ages  long. 
To  such  a  name. 

Preserve  a  broad  approach  of  fame. 
And  ever-echoing  avenues  of  song. 
—Ode  on  tlie  Death  of  tlie  Duke  of  Wellington.    Tennyson. 

Venerable  men!  you  have  come  down  to  us  from  a  former 
generation.  Heaven  has  bounteously  lengthened  out  your  lives, 
that  you  might  behold  this  joyous  day.  You  are  now  where  you 
stood  fifty  years  ago,  this  very  hour,  with  your  brothers  and  your 
neighbors,  shoulder  to  shoulder,  in  the  strife  for  your  country. 
Behold,  how  altered!  The  same  heavens  are  indeed  above  your 
heads ;  the  same  ocean  rolls  at  your  feet ;  but  all  else  how  changed ! 

You  hear  now  no  roar  of  hostile  cannon,  you  see  no  mixed  vol- 
ume of  smoke  and  flame  rising  from  burning  Charlestown.  The 
ground  strewed  with  the  dead  and  dying ;  the  impetuous  charge ; 
the  steady  and  successful  repulse ;  the  loud  call  to  repeated  assault ; 
the  summoning  of  all  that  is  manly  to  repeated  resistance;  a 
thousand  bosoms  freely  and  fearlessly  bared  in  an  instant  to 
whatever  of  terror  there  may  be  in  war  and  death ;  all  these  you 
have  witnessed,  but  you  witness  them  no  more. 

All  is  peace.  The  heights  of  yonder  metropolis,  its  towers  and 
roofs,  which  you  then  saw  filled  with  wives  and  children  and 
countrymen  in  distress  and  terror,  and  looking  with  unutterable 
emotions  for  the  issue  of  the  combat,  have  presented  you  to-day 
with  the  sight  of  its  whole  happy  population  come  out  to  welcome 
and  greet  you  with  a  universal  jubilee.  Yonder  proud  ships,  by  a 
felicity  of  position  appropriately  lying  at  the  foot  of  this  moimt, 
and  seeming  fondly  to  cling  around  it,  are  not  means  of  annoyance  to 
you,  but  your  country's  own  means  of  distinction  and  defense. — 
Webster. 

What  lesson  shall  those  lips  teach  us?  Before  that  still,  calm 
brow  let  us  take  a  new  baptism.     How  can  we  stand  here  without  a 


90  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

fresh  and  utter  consecration?  These  tears !  how  shall  we  dare  even 
to  offer  consolation?  Only  lips  fresh  from  such  a  vow  have  the 
right  to  mingle  their  words  with  your  tears.  We  envy  you  your 
nearer  place  to  these  martyred  children  of  God.  I  do  not  believe 
slavery  will  go  down  in  blood.  Ours  is  an  age  of  thought.  Hearts 
are  stronger  than  swords.  That  last  fortnight !  How  sublime  its 
lesson!  the  Christian  one  of  conscience, — of  truth.  Virginia  is 
weak,  because  each  man's  heart  said  amen  to  John  Brown.  His 
words, — they  are  stronger  even  than  his  rifles.  These  crushed  a 
State.  Those  have  changed  the  thoughts  of  millions,  and  will 
yet  crush  slavery.  Men  said,  "Would  he  had  died  in  arms!"  God 
ordered  better,  and  granted  to  him  and  the  slave  those  noble  prison 
hours,— that  single  hour  of  death;  granted  him  a  higher  than  the 
soldier's  place, — that  of  teacher;  the  echoes  of  his  rifles  have  died 
away  in  the  hills, — a  million  hearts  guard  his  words.  God  bless 
this  roof, — make  it  bless  us.  We  dare  not  say  bless  you,  children 
of  this  home !  you  stand  nearer  to  one  whose  lips  God  touched,  and 
we  rather  bend  for  your  blessings.  God  make  us  all  worthier  of 
him  whose  dust  we  lay  among  these  hills  he  loved.  Here  he 
girded  himself  and  went  forth  to  battle.  Fuller  success  than  his 
heart  ever  dreamed  God  granted  him.  He  sleeps  in  the  blessings  of 
the  crushed  and  the  poor,  and  men  believe  more  firmly  in  virtue, 
now  that  such  a  man  has  lived.  Standing  here,  let  us  thank  God 
for  a  firmer  faith  and  fuller  hope. — Wendell  Phillips. 

A  great  deal  of  space  has  been  given  to  the  preceding  illus- 
trations because  the  quality  necessary  to  express  the  emotions 
in  those  selections  is  very  rare.  Eare  for  two  reasons :  first, 
because  we  dwell  so  much  of  the  time  in  the  realm  of  the  so- 
called  practical  that  we  lose  interest  in  the  sublimer  aspects 
presented  in  poetry;  and,  secondly,  we  do  not  express  these 
larger  emotions  freely  and  often.  Expression,  like  all  other 
powers,  comes  tlirough  practice. 

The  second  distinct  quality  is  what  has  been  called  the 
Normal.  This  is  the  voice  of  everyday  life,  the  voice  in 
which  we  carry  on  the  conversation  of  the  home,  the  school- 
room, and  the  business  of  life  generally.      We  need  no  special 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  91 

practice  in  this  quality,  but  it  is  well  to  recognize  it  in  order 
that  we  may  compare  with  it  the  other  qualities.  The  follow- 
ing extract  would  be  expressed  in  Normal  quality. 

Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  as  I  pronounced  it  to  you,  trip- 
pingly on  the  tongue ;  but  if  you  mouth  it,  as  many  of  your  players 
do,  I  had  as  lief  the  town  crier  spoke  my  lines.  And  do  not  saw 
the  air  too  much  with  your  hand,  thus ;  but  use  all  gently :  for  in 
the  very  torrent,  tempest,  and  (as  I  may  say)  whirlwind  of  your 
passion,  you  must  acquire  and  beget  a  temperance  that  may  give  it 
smoothness.  Oh,  it  offends  me  to  the  soul  to  hear  a  robustious, 
periwig-pated  fellow  tear  a  passion  to  tatters,  to  very  rags,  to  split 
the  ears  of  the  groundlings,  who,  for  the  most  part,  are  capable  of 
nothing  but  inexplicable  dumb-shows  and  noise.  I  would  have  such 
a  fellow  whipped  for  o'erdoing  Termagant;  it  out-herods  Herod: 
pray  you  avoid  it. 

Be  not  too  tame  either,  but  let  your  own  discretion  be  your  tutor: 
suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the  action,  with  this 
special  observance,  that  you  o'erstep  not  the  modesty  of  Nature;  for 
anything  so  overdone  is  from  the  purpose  of  playing,  whose  end, 
both  at  the  first,  and  now,  was,  and  is,  to  hold,  as  'twere,  the  mirror 
up  to  Nature,  to  show  Virtue  her  own  feature.  Scorn  her  own  image, 
and  the  very  age  and  body  of  the  time  his  form  and  pressure.  Now, 
this  overdone,  or  come  tardy  off,  though  it  make  the  unskillful 
laugh,  cannot  but  make  the  judicious  grieve ;  the  censure  of  the 
which  one  must,  in  your  allowance,  o'erweigh  a  whole  theater  of 
others.  Oh,  there  be  players  that  I  have  seen  play — and  heard 
others  praise,  and  that  highly — not  to  speak  it  profanely,  that, 
neither  having  the  accent  of  Christians,  nor  the  gait  of  Christian, 
pagan,  or  man,  have  so  strutted  and  bellowed  that  I  have  thought 
some  of  Nature's  journeymen  had  made  men,  and  not  made  them 
well,  they  imitated  humanity  so  abominably. — Hamlet,  Act  iii., 
So.  2. 

In  a  work  which  makes  no  pretension  to  cover  the  whole 
realm  of  elocution,  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  discuss  the 
more  extravagant  forms  of  emotion,  such  as  terror,  rage,  hate, 
and  the  like.     In  order,  however,  to  give  this  phase  of  the 


92  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

subject  a  certain  approximation  to  complete  treatment,  it  may 
be  well  to  touch  upon  these  abnormal  emotional  states  and  the 
respective  qualities  in  which  they  find  expression. 

There  is  a  wide  range  of  feeling  that  so  affects  the  action  of 
the  vocal  apparatus  as  to  produce  a  breathy  tone.  It  would  be 
idle  and  misleading  to  enumerate  all  the  occasions  upon  which 
we  might  expect  to  hear  this  aspirated  voice.  Suffice  it  that  a 
sense  of  oppression  resulting  from  any  one  of  many  causes :  the 
desire  not  to  be  overheard;  the  weakness  of  old  age  and 
disease — any  of  these  conditions  may  produce  the  aspirated 
tone.  Aspiration  does  not  manifest  any  one  emotion,  but  may 
accompany  many.  There  may  be  considerable  aspiration 
mixed  with  the  expression  of  joy,  as  well  as  with  the  expres- 
sion of  hate  or  despair.  It  is  well  to  bear  this  in  mind,  for 
many  text  books  give  the  "Aspirated  Quality"  as  a  specific 
kind  of  voice  manifesting  specific  emotions  and  those  only. 
When  we  observe  that  this  quality  is  found  in  awe,  terror, 
hate,  and  like  emotions;  in  debility;  and  when  we  wish  to 
whisper ;  the  unscientific  nature  of  such  a  classification  be- 
comes sufficiently  clear.     A  few  examples  are  appended: 

St!     Don't  make  any  noise:  he's  asleep. 
Walk  softly:  I  think  they're  listening. 
Go  away !     I  hate  you. 
Oh!  I'm  so  tired;  help  me  along. 

How  can  I  tell  him  the  truth ! 
There  is  no  hope. 

*'C]iarge,  Chester,  charge!     On,  Stanley,  on!" 
"Were  the  last  words  of  Marmion. 

O  horror !  horror !  horror ! 

Tongue,  nor  heart,  cannot  conceive,  nor  name  thee ! 

Measureless  liar  I 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  93 

Spare  me,  great  God !    Lift  up  my  drooping  brow ; 
I  am  content  to  die ;  but,  oh,  not  now. 

I  pray  you,  give  me  leave  to  go  hence ; 
I  am  not  well. 

Dear  master,  I  can  go  no  further :  O,  I  die  for  food !    Here  lie 
I  down,  and  measure  out  my  grave.     Farewell,  kind  master. 

How  ill  this  taper  burns !    Ha !  who  comes  here? 

I  think  it  is  the  weakness  of  my  eyes 

That  shapes  this  monstrous  apparition. 

It  comes  upon  me.     Art  thou  any  thing? 

Art  thou  some  god,  some  angel,  or  some  devil, 

That  mak'st  my  blood  cold,  and  my  hair  to  stare? — 

Speak  to  me  what  thou  art. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  iv.,  Sc.  3. 

Lady  Macbeth.     Alack!    I  am  afraid  they  have  awak'd, 
And  'tis  not  done.     The  attempt,  and  not  the  deed, 
Confounds  us.     Hark ! — I  laid  their  daggers  ready, 
He  could  not  miss  them. — Had  he  not  resembled 
My  father  as  he  slept,  I  had  done  't.     My  husband ! 

Macbeth.     I  have  done  the  deed.     Didst  thou  not  hear  a  noise? 

Lady  Macbeth.    I  heard  the  owl  scream,  and  the  crickets  cry. 
Did  you  not  speak? 
^'    Macbeth.  When? 

Lady  Macbeth.  Now. 

Macbeth.  As  I  descended? 

Lady  Macbeth.    Ay. 

Macbeth.    Hark ! 
Who  lies  i'  th'  second  chamber? 

Lady  Macbeth.  Donalbain. 

Macbeth.     This  is  a  sorry  sight.  [Looking  at  his  hands. 

Lady  Macbeth.     A  foolish  thought,  to  say  a  sorry  sight. 

Macbeth.    There's  one  did  laugh  in  's  sleep, 
And  one  cried,  "Murder!"  that  they  did  wake  each  other; 
I  stood  and  heard  them :  but  they  did  say  their  prayers, 
And  addressed  them  again  to  sleep. 

— Macbeth,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  2. 


94  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Stern,  severe,  harsh  feelings  have  a  tendency  to  contract 
the  throat ;  hence,  we  get  a  quality  that  is  called  the  Guttural. 
It  is  heard  only  where  the  passion  grips  the  throat. 

Mend,  and  change  home, 
Or  by  the  fires  of  heaven,  I'll  leave  the  foe, 
And  make  me  wars  on  you:  look  to  't:    Come  on! 

"Curse  on  him!"  quoth  false  Sextus: 
**Will  not  the  villain  drown? 

But  for  this  stay,  ere  close  of  day 

We  should  have  sacked  the  town!" 

Never,  lago.     Like  to  the  Pontic  Sea, 

Whose  icy  current  and  compulsive  course 

Ne'er  feels  retiring  ebb,  but  keeps  due  on 

To  the  Propontic  and  the  Hellespont, 

Even  so  my  bloody  thoughts,  with  violent  pace, 

Shall  ne'er  look  back,  ne'er  ebb  to  humble  love. 

Till  that  a  capable  and  wide  revenge 

Swallow  them  up.     Now,  by  yond'  marble  heaven, 

In  the  due  reverence  of  a  sacred  vow 

I  here  engage  my  words. 

— Othello,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  3. 

Blow  winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks !  rage !  blow ! 

You  cataracts  and  hurricanoes,  spout 

Till  you  have  drench'd  our  steeples,  drown'd  the  cocks  I 

You  sulphurous  and  thought-executing  fires, 

Vaunt  couriers  to  oak-cleaving  thunderbolts, 

Singe  my  white  head !    And  thou,  all-shaking  thunder, 

Strike  flat  the  thick  rotundity  o'  the  world ! 

Crack  Nature's  molds,  all  germens  spill  at  once, 

That  make  ungrateful  man ! 

— King  Lear,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  2. 

There  are  two  opposite  qualities  of  voice  well  known  to 
singers:  the  bright,  ringing  tone,  and  the  dark,  sombre, 
covered  tone.  This  distinction  is,  for  the  purposes  of  the 
public-school   teacher,  far  more  valuable   than   most  others. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  95 

Joy,  happiness,  buoyancy,  exuberance,  are  likely,  when 
there  are  no  marked  physical  defects,  to  find  expression 
in  the  bright  tone ;  while  sorrow  and  the  moods  of  introspec- 
tion may  often  modify  the  texture  of  the  vibrating  substances 
so  as  to  produce  the  darker  quality. 

EXTRACTS  TO  ILLUSTRATE    "DARK"   QUALITY. 

King.     O,  my  offense  is  rank,  it  smells  to  Heaven ; 
It  hath  the  primal  eldest  curse  upon't, 
A  brothei  's  murder !    Pray  can  I  not : 
Though  inclination  be  as  sharp  as  will, 
My  stronger  guilt  defeats  my  strong  intent ; 
And,  like  a  man  to  double  business  bound, 
I  stand  in  pause  where  I  shall  first  begin. 
And  both  neglect.     What  if  this  cursed  hand 
Were  thicker  than  itself  with  brother's  blood, 
Is  there  not  rain  enough  in  the  sweet  Heavens 
To  wash  it  white  as  snow?    Whereto  serves  mercy 
But  to  confront  the  visage  of  offense? 
And  what's  in  prayer  but  this  twofold  force, — 
To  be  forestalled  ere  we  come  to  fall, 
Or  pardon'd  being  down?    Then  I'll  look  up; 
My  fault  is  past.     But,  O,  what  form  of  prayer 
Can  serve  my  turn?    Forgive  me  my  foul  murder  f 
That  cannot  be ;  since  I  am  still  possess'd 
Of  these  effects  for  which  I  did  the  murder. 
My  crown,  mine  own  ambition,  and  my  Queen. 
May  one  be  pardoned  and  retain  th'  offense?  .  .  . 

— Hamlet,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  S. 

Alas !  my  noble  boy  I  that  thou  shouldst  die ! 

Thou  who  wert  made  so  beautifully  fair ! 
That  death  should  settle  in  thy  glorious  eye. 

And  leave  his  stillness  in  this  clustering  hair  1 
How  could  he  mark  thee  for  the  silent  tomb, 
My  proud  boy,  Absalom ! 

Cold  is  thy  brow,  my  son !  and  I  am  chill 
As  to  my  bosom  I  have  tried  to  press  thee  1 


98  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

How  was  I  wont  to  feel  my  pulses  thrill 

Like  a  rich  harp-string  yearning  to  caress  thee, 
And  hear  thy  sweet  ''my  father!''  from  those  dumb 
And  cold  lips,  Absalom ! 


But  death  is  on  thee !  I  shall  hear  the  gush 

Of  music,  and  the  voices  of  the  young ; 
And  life  will  pass  me  in  the  mantling  blush. 

And  the  dark  tresses  to  the  soft  winds  flung ; — 
But  thou  no  more,  with  thy  sweet  voice,  shalt  come 
To  meet  me,  Absalom ! 

And  oh !  when  I  am  stricken,  and  my  heart. 

Like  a  bruised  reed,  is  waiting  to  be  broken, 
How  will  its  love  for  thee,  as  I  depart. 

Yearn  for  thine  ear  to  drink  its  last  deep  token ! 
It  were  so  sweet,  amid  death's  gathering  gloom, 
To  see  thee,  Absalom ! 
— David's  Lament  over  Absalom,    N.  P.  Willis. 


Lear.    You  Heavens,  give  me  patience, — patience  I 
need! 
You  see  me  here,  you  gods,  a  poor  old  man, 
As  full  of  grief  as  age ;  wretched  in  both ! 
If  it  be  you  that  stir  these  daughters'  hearts 
Against  their  father,  fool  me  not  so  much 
To  bear  it  tamely ;  touch  me  with  noble  anger ; 
And  let  not  women's  weapons,  water-drops. 
Stain  my  man's  cheeks ! — No,  you  unnatural  hags, 
I  will  have  such  revenges  on  you  both. 
That  all  the  world  shall — I  will  do  such  things, — 
What  they  are,  yet  I  know  not ;  but  they  shall  be 
The  terrors  of  the  earth.     You  think  I'll  weep; 
No,  I'll  not  weep: 

I  have  full  cause  of  weeping ;  but  this  heart 
Shall  break  into  a  hundred  thousand  flaws, 
Or  e'er  I'll  weep. — O  Fool,  I  shall  go  mad! 

— King  I^ear,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  4 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  i^7 

EXAMPLES  TO  ILLUSTRATE    * 'BRIGHT"    QUALITY. 

GRxVTIANO.     Let  me  play  the  fool: 
With  mirth  and  laughter  let  old  wrinkles  come. 
And  let  my  liver  rather  heat  with  wine 
Than  my  heart  cool  with  mortifying  groans. 
Why  should  a  man,  whose  blood  is  warm  within, 
Sit  like  his  grandsire  cut  in  alabaster? 
Sleep  when  he  wakes  and  creep  into  the  jaundice 
By  being  peevish?    I  tell  thee  what,  Antonio — 
I  love  thee,  and  it  is  my  love  that  speaks — 
There  are  a  sort  of  men  whose  visages 
Do  cream  and  mantle  like  a  standing  pond, 
And  do  a  willful  stillness  entertain, 
With  purpose  to  be  dress'd  in  an  opinion 
Gt  wisdom,  gravity,  profound  conceit, 
AS  who  should  say,  "I  am  Sir  Oracle, 
And  when  I  ope  my  lips  let  no  dog  bark !" 
O  my  Antonio,  I  do  know  of  these 
That  therefore  only  are  reputed  wise 
For  saying  nothing,  who,  I  am  very  sure. 
If  they  should  speak,  would  almost  damn  those  eair 
Which,  hearing  them,  would  call  their  brothers,  to  ;ls. 
I'll  tell  thee  more  of  this  another  time: 
But  fish  not,  with  this  melancholy  bait, 
For  this  fool  gudgeon,  this  opinion. 
Come,  good  Lorenzo.     Fare  ye  well  awhile : 
I'll  end  my  exhortation  after  dinner. 

— The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  i.,  Sc  1. 

She  mounts  her  chariot  with  a  trice. 
Nor  would  she  stay  for  no  advice, 
Until  her  maids,  that  were  so  nice, 

To  wait  on  her  were  fitted. 
But  ran  herself  away  alone ; 
Which  when  they  heard,  there  was  not  one 
But  hasted  after  to  be  gone, 

As  she  had  been  diswitted. 

Hop,  and  Mop,  and  Drap  so  clear, 
Pip,  and  Trip,  and  Ship,  that  were 


98  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

To  Mab  their  sovereign  dear, 

Her  special  maids  of  honor ; 
Fib,  and  Tib,  and  Pinck,  and  Pin, 
Tick,  and  Quick,  and  Jill,  and  Jin, 
Tit,  and  Nit,  and  Wap,  and  Win, 

The  train  that  wait  upon  her. 

Upon  a  grasshopper  they  got. 

And  what  with  amble  and  with  trot, 

For  hedge  nor  ditch  they  spared  not, 

But  after  her  they  hie  them. 
A  cobweb  over  them  they  throw. 
To  shield  the  wind  if  it  should  blow. 
Themselves  they  wisely  could  bestow, 

Lest  any  should  espy  them. 

—Queen  Mab.    Drayton. 

Cheer  answer  cheer,  and  bear  the  cheer  about. 
Hurrah,  hurrah,  for  the  fiery  fort  is  ours ! 
* 'Victory,  victory,  victory!" 

Hear  the  sledges  with  the  bells,— silver  bells; 

What  a  world  of  merriment  their  melody  foretells  I 

How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle, 

In  the  icy  air  of  night ! 

While  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 

All  the  heavens,  seem  to  twinkle 

With  a  crystalline  delight ; 

Keeping  time,  time,  time, 

In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 

To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 

From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells, — 

From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells. 

—The  Bells.    PoE. 

PEDAGOGICAL    ASPECTS. 

For  the  third  time,  it  is  well  to  be  reminded  that  drills  in 
the  elements  of  expression  as  such  have  no  place  in  public- 
school  training.     Perhaps  in  no  part  of  the  work  is  more  care 


THE  CRITERION  OF  QUALITY  99 

necessary  than  in  the  development  of  the  pupil's  power  to 
express  feeling.  If  we  were  discussing  methods  of  teaching 
elocution  outside  of  the  public  school,  the  author  would  be 
compelled  to  protest  strongly  against  a  prevalent  practice  of 
endeavoring  to  develop  the  different  vocal  qualities  apart  from 
the  emotion  that  produces  these  qualities.  But  the  diffi- 
culty in  public-school  methods  is  that  they  pay  comparatively 
little  attention  to  emotional  expression.  As  a  general  thing, 
so  educators  say,  there  is  either  no  feeling  (''no  expression," 
some  put  it),  or,  what  is  worse,  there  is  a  palpable  affecta- 
tion of  feeling.  Somehow,  it  has  come  to  be  considered 
''girlish"  for  a  boy  to  put  feeling  into  his  reading,  especially 
tender  feeling ;  and  for  the  girl  to  do  so  is  considered  a  sure 
indication  of  weakness.  The  atmosphere  of  the  school-room 
is  not  conducive  to  the  development  of  emotional  power,  and 
if,  by  any  chance,  a  little  shoot  peep  out  of  the  soil,  it  dies 
for  want  of  light  and  warmth.  Emotion  in  itself  is  a  good 
thing,  when  properly  guided ;  but  we  need  emotion  in  reading 
because  it  is  a  sign  that  the  pupil  can  be  moved  by  the  con- 
templation of  the  noble,  the  tender,  the  true.  It  is  a  sign 
that  the  children  have  that  precious  gift  of  imagination. 
Where  there  is  no  opportunity  for  the  expression  of  feeling, 
there  must  result  a  great  loss  in  expressive  power  and  eventu- 
ally in  power  of  imagination.  Such  a  loss  is  irremediable,  for 
there  follows  in  its  wake  inability  to  appreciate  the  finer  breath 
and  spirit  of  literature. 

Our  public  schools,  except  in  particularly  favored  districts, 
can  do  very  little  towards  training  the  voices  of  the  pupils. 
Even  when  there  are  special  teachers  the  best  results  are  found 
not  so  much  in  the  voices  as  in  the  ability  to  read  music.  To 
train  the  human  voice  requires  genius  and  much  particular 
training,  and  we  cannot  expect  that  school  communities  will 
appoint  such  teachers  for    many,   many   generations.      But 


100  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

development  of  the  child's  powers  of  expression  through  the 
stimulation  of  his  imagination  and  emotions  will  do  wonders 
for  his  voice.  So  that  here  we  have  a  third  reason  for  pleading 
so  earnestly  for  more  careful  attention  to  this  aspect  of  vocal 
expression.  One  hears  so  often  the  excuse,  "Oh,  he  hasn't 
any  voice;  that's  why  he  can't  read."  The  author  believes 
with  that  great  specialist  in  the  child  voice,  William  L. 
Tomlins,  that,  except  when  there  are  serious  structural 
defects,  the  imagination  and  soul  will  make  a  voice.  Let  it 
be  remarked,  that  the  claim  is  not  made  that  vocal  training  is 
unnecessaiy.  But  when  we  look  at  the  conditions  that  make 
impossible  the  appointment  of  skilled  specialists  in  voice,  we 
give  up  in  despair  of  effecting  for  some  time  to  come  any 
radical  change.  Further,  a  good  voice  does  not  imply  a  good 
reader.  Since,  then,  we  can  not  get  the  voice  teacher ;  and 
since,  when  we  can,  we  are  not  assured  he  will  develop  good 
expressionists,  it  should  be  a  great  stimulus  to  the  consci- 
entious teacher  to  learn  that  the  very  highest  quality  of  the 
voice,  soulfulness,  may  be  developed  through  stimulation  of 
the  imagination.  And,  further,  let  us  note  that  expression 
that  comes  in  this  way  can  never  be  affected. 

The  teacher  now  knows  that  emotion  affects  the  quality  of 
tone.  Let  him  then  use  this  knowledge  as  he  has  learned  to 
use  his  knowledge  of  the  other  criteria.  We  recognize  instinc- 
tively the  qualities  that  express  sorrow,  tenderness,  joy  and 
the  other  states  of  feeling.  When  the  proper  quality  does  not 
appear  it  is  because  the  child  has  no  feeling  or  the  wrong  feel- 
ing— generally  the  former.  There  is  but  one  way  to  correct 
the  expression,  i.  e.,  by  stimulating  the  imagination. 

This  is  a  most  difficult  task,  but  that  fact  does  not  excuse 
UB  from  attempting  it.  In  Part  II  this  feature  will  be 
treated  at  length. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE  CRITERIOI^  OF   FORCE 

Force  manifests  the  degree  of  mental  energy.  When  we 
speak  in  a  loud  voice  there  is  much  energy ;  when  softly,  there 
is  little.  This  criterion  is  the  easiest  of  the  four  to  under- 
stand, because,  perhaps,  it  is  the  most  tangible.  We  need 
not  stay,  therefore,  to  illustrate,  but  may  pass  on  to  consider 
a  subdivision  of  Force,  the  understanding  of  which  is  very 
necessary  to  good  teaching. 

In  reading  the  following  lines  note  how  explosive  is  the 
utterance  on  the  emphatic  words : 

Down !  down !  your  lances,  down ! 
Bear  back  both  friend  and  foe ! 

Now  observe  how  differently  we  apply  the  force  on  the 
emphatic  words  of  this  extract : 

Ye  gods !  ye  gods !    Must  I  endure  all  this? 

In  the  first  example,  upon  the  emphatic  words,  there  was 
heard  a  loud  explosion  of  the  voice,  followed  by  a  gradual 
diminution  in  force;  in  the  second,  the  voice  perceptibly 
swelled  on  the  significant  words.  This  swell  or  diminish  has 
been  called  "Stress."  Perhaps  it  is  not  the  best  word,  but 
since  its  meaning  in  the  sense  in  which  we  are  using  it  here  is 
generally  understood,  it  may  be  well  to  retain  it.  ** Stress" 
refers  to  the  manner  of  applying  the  force  to  the  emphatic 
syllable.  In  the  first  of  the  preceding  illustrations,  the  great- 
est force  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  emphatic  syllable.  This 
form  is  called  "Radical"  stress.     In  the  second,  the  force 

101 


W);2  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

was  applied  in  the  opposite  manner.  This  form  is  denomi- 
nated "Final"  stress. 

Kadical  stress  marks  all  forms  of  animated  utterance.  It 
is  the  result  of  the  normal  action  of  the  vocal  chords,  which, 
coming  together  before  syllabic  impulses,  suddenly  part, 
causing  a  slight  degree  of  explosion.  Absence  of  this  form  of 
stress  gives  the  delivery  a  kind  of  drawling  effect.  It  is  fur- 
ther to  be  noted  that  even  in  those  utterances  characterized 
by  other  forms  of  stress  this  form  yet  manifests  itself  on  most 
of  the  syllables.  After  the  student  has  practiced  the  other 
forms  of  stress,  he  will  better  understand  this  remark.  He 
will  have  noticed  that  the  other  forms  are  significant  just  in  so 
far  as  they  differ  from  this  one,  which  is  the  normal ;  and, 
further,  that  because  the  radical  stress  is  normal,  the  use  of 
other  forms  of  stress  on  a  comparatively  few  (emphatic) 
syllables  will  give  a  very  significant  coloring  to  a  whole  para- 
graph. 

We  must  guard  against  over-developing  this  abruptness. 
If  we  do  not,  our  delivery  will  be  very  likely  to  become  explo- 
sive, and  then  we  shall  create  the  impression  of  being  too  dog- 
matic. On  the  other  hand,  slovenliness  and  drawling  may  be 
overcome  by  drilling  on  this  element  of  expression,  and  much 
vitality  will  thereby  be  imparted  to  the  speaking. 

All  speech,  then,  has  this  abrupt  character.  It  has  become 
so  familiar  to  us  that  we  do  not  notice  it  except,  as  it  were, 
in  its  absence,  when  the  delivery  becomes  drawling  or 
slovenly.  Hence,  we  can  say  that  radical  stress  in  its  milder 
forms  is  not  essentially  expressive ;  it  is  an  inherent  part  of 
our  vocal  production.  It  becomes  expressive  only  in  its 
stronger  forms.  The  student  whose  delivery  is  sufficiently 
vital  need  not  practice  on  the  milder  form.  It  need  hardly 
be  said  that  the  form  and  the  thought  should  not  be  sepa- 
rated in  this  practice. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  FORCE  103 

It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  different 
degrees  of  stress  as  well  as  kinds.  Professor  Eaymond  truly 
says,  "Never  confuse  the  kind  of  stress  with  the  degree."  To 
illustrate:  the  decided  stroke  of  the  voice  is  heard  in, 

Come,  and  trip  it  as  ye  go 
On  the  light  fantastic  toe ; 

but  a  strong  attack  would  spoil  the  daintiness.  Let  us 
remember  that  a  grain  of  gunpowder  explodes  as  well  as  a  ton. 
This  admonition  applies  as  well  to  other  forms  of  stress. 

It  has  been  urged,  that  if  the  claim  is  true  that  the  com- 
plete assimilation  of  the  thought  and  feeling  will,  through 
practice,  lead  to  adequate  expression,  why  bother  the  student 
with  such  drills  as  these?  The  answer  is  plain.  One's 
temperament  may  be  of  such  a  nature  that  he  cannot  express 
a  single  sentence  without,  say,  the  greatest  insistency.  The 
insistency  is  temperamental,  and  it  shows  in  everything  the 
speaker  does.  By  a  careful  study  of  "Stress,"  he  is  intro- 
duced to  his  own  consciousness,  soon  recognizes  his  weakness, 
and  his  delivery  is  improved  through  improving  his  mental 
action.  If  this  is  true  for  the  creative  speaker,  the  orator,  how 
much  more  is  it  true  of  him  who  reads  or  recites  the  words  of 
another. 

A  few  years  ago,  a  well-known  minister  spoke  these  words : 
"You  may  read  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles,  and  the  philosophy 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle ;  you  may  be  familiar  with  the  lore  of 
the  Hindus  and  the  Brahmins ;  you  may  know  your  Shake- 
speare, your  Milton,  and  your  Dante,  your  Wordsworth,  your 
Browning,  and  your  Tennyson,  but  [raising  aloft  a  limp- 
covered  Bible]  it's  all  here!''  And  he  brought  the  book  down 
on  the  palm  of  his  hand  with  a  thwack  that  was  heard 
throughout  the  building.  He  fairly  exploded  on  "all  here," 
and  the  congregation  laughed.     Paraphrased,  his  stress  said. 


104  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

I — I,  who  know  what  I  am  talking  about,  tell  you  people — 
deny  it  if  you  can — it's  all  here.  There  was  no  appeal,  no 
tenderness,  no  gentle  persuasiveness.  His  purpose  ought  to 
have  been  (to  avoid  argument,  let  it  be  said  that  the  context 
justifies  this  remark — he  was  appealing  for  a  more  careful  and 
reverential  study  of  the  Bible)  to  express.  Oh,  my  friends,  this 
holy  work,  this  revelation  of  God's  goodness,  contains  all  you 
need.  Why  not  take  it  up,  and  study  it?  You  read  all 
literatures ;  will  you  not  read  this  too?  The  trouble  was  that 
the  preacher,  being  naturally  of  an  aggressive  nature,  lost 
sight  of  his  final  purpose,  and  spoiled  what  might  have  been  a 
very  effective  appeal,  by  obtruding  himself  between  his  illus- 
tration and  his  audience.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  state  that 
the  speaker's  attention  was  called  to  this;  and  he  admitted 
the  justice  of  the  criticism,  while  disclaiming  all  knowledge  of 
Avhat  he  had  done,  and  how  he  had  done  it. 

This  illustrates  the  contention.  He  had  had  no  idea  that 
he  had  become  so  assertive  that  he  virtually  said,  I  tell  you  so, 
on  every  emphatic  word.  A  study  of  *' Stress"  and  its 
psychology  would  certainly  have  helped  him. 

In  The  Orator's  Manual  the  author  sums  up  this  matter 
of  radical  stress  thus:  "The  radical  stress  is  exerted  on 
account  of  a  subjective  .  .  .  motive ;  in  other  words,  because 
a  man  desires  chiefly  to  express  an  idea  on  his  own  account. 
...  In  [this]  case  the  sound  bursts  forth  abruptly,  as  if  the 
man  were  conscious  of  nothing  but  his  own  organs  to  prevent 
the  accomplishment  of  his  object.  ...  It  is  used  when- 
ever one's  main  wish  is  to  express  himself  so  as  to  be  distinctly 
understood.  In  its  mildest  form,  it  serves  to  render  articula- 
tion clear  and  utterance  precise;  when  stronger,  it  indicates 
bold  and  earnest  assurance,  posit iveness,  and  di elation. 
.  .  .  Without  [this]  stress,  gentleness  becomes  an  inarticu- 
late and  timid  drawls  and  vehemence  mere  brawling  bombast. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  FORCE        ^  105 

With  too  frequent  use  of  it,  one's  delivery  becomes  character- 
ized by  an  appearance  of  self-assertion,  assurance,  or  precise- 
ness."     In  other  words,  it  is  the  "I"  stress. 

Of  final  stress.  Professor  Eaymond  says:  *'It  is  exerted  on 
account  of  an  objective  idea.  The  sound  is  pushed  forth 
gradually,  as  if  the  man  were  conscious  of  outside  opposition, 
and  of  the  necessity  of  pressing  his  point.  It  is  used  when- 
ever one's  main  wish  is  to  impress  his  thoughts  on  others.  It 
gives  utterance,  in  its  weakest  form,  to  the  whine  or  complaint 
of  mere  peevishness  demanding  consideration ;  when  stronger 
to  a  pushing  earnestness  or  determination;  in  its  strongest 
form,  to  a  desire  to  cause  others  to  feel  one's  own  astonish- 
ment, scorn,  or  horror.  .  .  .  Without  final  stress  there  can 
be  no  representation  of  childish  weakness  or  obstinacy,  or  of 
.  .  .  resolution;  used  too  exclusively,  or  excessively,  it 
causes  delivery  to  be  characterized  by  an  appearance  of  wil- 
fulness, depriving  it  of  the  qualities  of  persuasion  that  appeal 
to  the  sympathies. " 

A  very  little  of  final  stress  will  give  a  decided  coloring  to 
the  delivery.  The  student  should  be  careful,  therefore,  not 
to  overdo  it.  To  illustrate :  a  speaker  is  urging  the  colonists 
to  abandon  the  idea  of  war,  claiming  that  they  are  weak,  and 
so  on.  Patrick  Henry  rises  and  says,  "Sir,  we  are  not  weak 
if  we  make  a  proper  use  of  those  means  which  the  God  of 
nature  hath  placed  in  our  power.  Three  millions  of  people 
armed  in  the  holy  cause  of  liberty^  and  in  such  a  country  as 
that  which  we  possess,  are  invincible  by  any  force  which  our 
enemy  can  send  against  us."  On  the  word  "not,"  the  speaker 
is  plainly  pushing  aside  the  argument  of  his  opponent.  When 
he  utters  *  liberty,"  we  note  again  the  insistent  idea.  He 
tells  us  by  his  stress.  Other  revolutions  may  have  failed 
through  lack  of  numbers,  but  the  gentleman  forgets  that  ours 
will  be  a  struggle  for  liberty.     Again,  in  "we,"  "invincible," 


106  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

and  *^any,"  we  plainly  discern  the  idea  of  overcoming  opposi- 
tion. 'Now,  it  must  be  clear  that  while  it  is  only  on  the  five 
words  italicized  we  note  the  insistence,  yet  the  whole  state- 
ment is  strongly  tinged  by  it. 

There  is  a  third  form  of  stress  commonly  called  "Median." 
This  is  a  combination  of  the  final  and  radical,  and  manifests  a 
combination  of  the  objective  and  subjective  states.  There  are 
other  combinations  and  forms  of  stress,  but  they  are  rarely 
heard  and  need  not  be  dwelt  upon  here. 

Attention  needs  to  be  directed  to  the  fact  that  stress 
sometimes  extends  through  several  words  and  gives  a  character- 
istic color  to  an  entire  phrase  or  sentence.  For  instance,  we 
note  that  the  swell  continues  from  the  opening  word  to 
** despised,"  in  the  following  speech  of  Cassio,  who  is  oppos- 
ing lago's  plan.  N'ote  further  the  same  effect  on  phrases 
italicized : 

I  will  rather  sue  to  be  despised,  than  to  deceive  so  good  a  com- 
mander, with  so  slight,  so  drunken,  and  so  indiscreet  an  officer. 
Drunk!  and  speak  parrot?  and  squabble?  swagger?  swear?  and 
discourse  fustian  with  one's  own  shadow?  O  thou  invisible  spirit 
of  wine,  if  thou  hast  no  name  to  be  known  by,  let  us  call  thee — 
deyill— Othello,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  3. 

Observe  how  the  force  increases  up  to  ''Lord"  and  dies 
away  to  the  end  in  the  following : 

O,  sing  unto  the  Lord  a  new  song. 

It  may  be  well  to  remark  here  that  there  are  certain  writers 
who  hold  that  the  study  of  stress  is  misleading,  or  at  best 
useless.  To  these  answer  is  made  that  music  uses  these 
stresses  very  much  in  the  sense  in  which  they  are  used  here. 
The  attack  necessary  for  pure  singing  or  instrumental  tone  is 
our  radical  (normal)  stress.  The  ''staccato"  and  '^sforzando" 
are  more  intense  forms  of  this  stress.       The  '^crescendo," 


THE  CRITERION  OF  FORCE  107 

**  diminuendo/'  and  * 'swell"  are   respectively   equivalent  to 
*'final,"  prolonged  *'radical,"  and  ''median"  stresses. 

It  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  a  very  general  confusion 
of  ideas  in  the  use  of  the  word  "low. "  It  is  applied  to  force 
and  pitch  indiscriminately,  to  the  loss  of  an  important  distinc- 
tion. Low  pitch  is  the  result  of  low  tension,  while  soft  force 
is  diminished  mental  energy.  High  pitch  may  accompany  soft 
force,  and  loud  force  may  be  simultaneous  with  low  pitch.  It 
is  because  low  pitch  has  generally  accompanied  soft  force  that 
the  confusion  has  arisen. 

EXAMPLES  ILLUSTRATING  THE  USE  OF  RADICAL  STRESS. 

Are  you  ready?    Go! 

Carry — Arms. 
Present — Arms. 
Right  about — face. 
Halt. 

Stop,  don't  take  another  step. 
Give  me  that  pencil ;  it's  mine. 
Leave  the  room,  sir. 
One,  two,  three,  fire. 

Back !  beardless  boy ! 

Back !  minion !    Holdst  thou  thus  at  naught 

The  lesson  I  so  lately  taught? 

Man,  who  art  thou  who  dost  deny  my  words? 

But  in  the  gloom  they  fought,  with  bloodshot  eyes 
And  laboring  breath ;  first  Rustum  struck  the  shield 
Which  Sohrab  held  stiff  out ;  the  steel-spiked  spear 
Rent  the  tough  plates,  but  fail'd  to  reach  the  skin, 
And  Rustum  pluck' d  it  back  with  angry  groan. 
Then  Sohrab  with  his  sword  smote  Rustum's  helm, 
Nor  clove  its  steel  quite  through ;  but  all  the  crest 
He  shore  away,  and  that  proud  horsehair  plume. 
Never  till  now  defiled,  sank  to  the  dust. 

— Sohrab  and  Rustum.    M.  Arnold. 


108  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

He  spoke,  and  Rustum  answer 'd  not,  but  hurl'd 
His  spear ;  down  from  the  shoulder,  down  it  came. 
As  on  some  partridge  in  the  corn  a  hawk, 
That  long  has  tower 'd  in  the  airy  clouds. 
Drops  like  a  plummet ;  Sohrab  saw  it  come, 
And  sprang  aside,  quick  as  a  flash ;  the  spear 
Hiss'd,  and  went  quivering  down  into  the  sand. 
Which  it  sent  flying  wide ; — then  Sohrab  threw 
In  turn,  and  full  struck  Rustum's  shield ;  sharp  rang, 
The  iron  plates  rang  sharp,  but  turn'd  the  spear. 
And  Rustum  seized  his  club,  which  none  but  he 
Could  wield. 

— Sohrab  and  Rustum.    M.  Arnold. 

Girl !  nimble  with  thy  feet,  not  with  thy  hands ! 
Curl'd  minion,  dancer,  coiner  of  sweet  words! 
Fight,  let  me  hear  thy  hateful  voice  no  more. 

— Ibid. 

Thou  art  not  in  Afrasiab's  garden  now 

With  Tartar  girls,  with  whom  thou  art  wont  to  dance ; 

But  on  the  Oxus  sands,  and  in  the  dance 

Of  battle,  and  with  me,  who  make  no  play 

Of  war ;  I  fight  it  out,  and  hand  to  hand. 

Speak  not  to  me  of  truce,  and  pledge,  and  wine  I 

Remember  all  thy  valor ;  try  thy  feints 

And  cunning !  all  the  pity  I  had  is  gone ; 

Because  thou  hast  shamed  me  before  both  the  hosts 

With  thy  light  skipping  tricks,  and  thy  girl's  wiles. 

—Ibid. 

The  armaments  which  thunderstrike  the  walls  of  rock-built  cities, 
Bidding  nations  quake,  and  monarchs  tremble  in  their  capitals ; 
The  oak  leviathans,  whose  huge  ribs  make  their  clay  creator 
The  vain  title  take  of  lord  of  thee,  and  arbiter  of  war, — 
These  are  thy  toys;   and  as  the  snowy  flake  they  melt  into  thy 

yeast  of  waves. 
Which  mar  alike  the  Armada's  pride,  or  spoils  of  Trafalgar. 

— Byron. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  FORCE  109 

EXAMPLES  ILLUSTRATING  THE  USE  OF  FINAL  STRESS.* 

I  won't! 

No,  sir ;  I  am  not  guilty. 

Away,  slight  man ! 

Miist  I  budge?    Must  I  observe  you? 

I  am  astonished,  shocked,  to  hear  such  principles  avowed  in  this 
house. 

Cassius.     Ye  gods!  ye  gods!    Must  I  endure  all  this? 
Brutus.    All  this?    Ay,  more. 

Shylock.     May  I  speak  with  Antonio? 

Bassanio.     If  it  please  you  to  dine  with  us. 

Shylock.  Yes,  to  smell  pork;  to  eat  of  the  habitation  which 
your  prophet  the  Nazarite  conjured  the  Devil  into.  I  will  buy 
with  you,  sell  with  you,  talk  with  you,  walk  with  you,  and  so  fol- 
lowing; but  I  will  not  eat  with  you,  drink  with  you,  nor  pray 
with  you. — The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  i.,  Sc.  3. 

Salarino.  Why,  I  am  sure,  if  he  forfeit,  thou  wilt  not  take 
his  flesh :  What's  that  good  for? 

Shylock.  To  bait  fish  withal :  if  it  will  feed  nothing  else,  it 
will  feed  my  revenge.  He  hath  disgraced  me,  and  hinder' d  me 
half  a  million:  laugh'd  at  my  losses,  mock'd  at  my  gains,  scorned 
my  nation,  thwarted  my  bargains,  cooled  my  friends,  heated  mine 
enemies;  and  what's  his  reason?  I  am  a  Jew.  Hath  not  a  Jew 
eyes?  hath  not  a  Jew  hands,  organs,  dimensions,  senses,  affections, 
passions?  fed  with  the  same  food,  hurt  with  the  same  weapons, 
subject  to  the  same  diseases,  healed  by  the  same  means,  warmed 
and  cooled  by  the  same  winter  and  summer,  as  a  Christian  is?  If 
you  prick  us,  do  we  not  bleed?  if  you  tickle  us,  do  we  not  laugh?  if 
you  poison  us,  do  we  not  die?  and  if  you  wrong  us,  shall  we  not 
revenge? — The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  1. 

*  A  few  words  are  italicized  in  order  to  draw  attention  to  the  places 
where  we  should  be  likely  to  use  this  stress.  Observe,  too,  how  the 
stress  impresses  us  with  the  desire  of  the  speaker  to  push  away  oppo- 
sition. 


110  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Worcester.  Those  same  noble  Soots, 

That  are  your  prisoners, — 

Hotspur.  I'll  keep  them  all; 

By  heaven,  he  shall  not  have  a  Scot  of  them. 
No,  if  a  Scot  would  save  his  soul,  he  shall  not. 
I'll  keep  them,  by  this  hand. 

Worcester.  You  start  away, 

And  lend  no  ear  unto  my  purposes. — 
Those  prisoners  you  shall  keep. 

Hotspur.  Nay,  I  will;  that's  flat.— 

He  said,  he  would  not  ransom  Mortimer ; 
Forbade  my  tongue  to  speak  of  Mortimer; 
But  I  will  find  him  when  he  lies  asleep, 
And  in  his  ear  I'll  holla — Mortimer! 
Nay, 

I'll  have  a  starling  shall  be  taught  to  speak 
Nothing  but  Mortimer,  and  give  it  him, 
To  keep  his  anger  still  in  motion. 

—King  Henry  IV.,  Part  I.,  Act  i.,  Sc.  3. 

And  now,  go  bring  your  sharpest  torments.  The  woes  I  see 
impending  over  this  guilty  realm  shall  be  enough  to  sweeten 
death^hough  every  nerve  and  artery  were  a  shooting  pang.  I  die ! 
but  my  death  shall  prove  a  proud  triumph ;  and,  for  every  drop  of 
blood  ye  from  my  veins  do  draw,  your  own  shall  flow  in  rivers. 
Woe  to  thee,  Carthage !  Woe  to  the  proud  city  of  the  waters !  I 
see  thy  nobles  wailing  at  the  feet  of  Roman  senators !  thy  citizens 
in  terror!  thy  ships  in  flames!  I  hear  the  victorious  shouts  of 
Rome!  I  see  her  eagles  glittering  on  thy  ramparts.  Proud  city, 
thou  art  doomed !  The  curse  of  God  is  on  thee — a  clinging,  wasting 
curse.  It  shall  not  leave  thy  gates  till  hungry  flames  shall  lick  the 
fretted  gold  from  off  thy  proud  palaces,  and  every  brook  runs 
crimson  to  the  sea. — Begulus  to  the  Carthaginians.    Kellogg. 

examples  illustrating  the  use  of  median  stress. 

Arise,  shine ;  for  thy  light  is  come,  and  the  glory  of  the  Lord  is 
risen  upon  thee. 

For,  behold,  darkness  shall  cover  the  earth,  and  gross  darkness 
the  people :  but  the  Lord  shall  arise  upon  thee,  and  his  glory  shall 
be  seen  upon  thee. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  FORCE  111 

And  nations  shall  come  to  thy  light,  and  kings  to  the  brightness 
of  thy  rising. 

Lift  up  thine  eyes  round  about,  and  see :  they  all  gather  them- 
selves together,  they  come  to  thee ;  thy  sons  shall  come  from  far, 
and  thy  daughters  shall  be  nursed  at  thy  side. 

Then  thou  shalt  see,  and  be  lightened,  and  thine  heart  shall 
tremble  and  be  enlarged ;  because  the  abundance  of  the  sea  shall  be 
unto  thee,  the  wealth  of  the  nations  shall  come  unto  thee. 
— Isa.  Ix.  1-5. 

Thou  kingly  Spirit  throned  among  the  hills, 
Thou  dread  ambassador  from  earth  to  heaven, 
Great  hierarch !  tell  thou  the  silent  sky, 
And  tell  the  stars,  and  tell  yon  rising  sun. 
Earth,  with  her  thousand  voices,  praises  God. 

—Coleridge. 

The  Lord  reigneth ;  he  is  appareled  with  majesty ; 

The  Lord  is  appareled,  he  hath  girded  himself  with  strength: 

The  world  also  is  stablished  that  it  cannot  be  moved. 

Thy  throne  is  established  of  old : 

Thou  art  from  everlasting. 

The  floods  have  lifted  up,  O  Lord. 

The  floods  have  lifted  up  their  voice ; 

The  floods  lift  up  their  waves. 

Above  the  voices  of  many  waters, 

The  mighty  breakers  of  the  sea, 

The  Lord  on  high  is  mighty. 

Thy  testimonies  are  very  sure: 

Holiness  becometh  thine  house, 

O  Lord,  for  evermore. — Ps.  xciii.  1-5. 

He  was  a  man,  take  him  for  all  in  all, 
I  shall  not  look  upon  his  like  again. 

— Hamlet,  Act  i.,  Sc.  2. 

This  was  the  noblest  Roman  of  them  all. 


His  life  was  gentle ;  and  the  elements 

So  mix'd  in  him,  that  Nature  might  stand  up 

And  say  to  all  the  world,  TJds  was  a  man! 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  v.,  Sc.  5. 


112  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

For  even  then,  Sir,  even  before  this  splendid  orb  was  entirely  set, 
and  while  the  western  horizon  was  in  a  blaze  with  his  descending 
glory,  on  the  opposite  quarter  of  the  heavens  arose  another  lumi- 
nary, and,  for  his  hour,  became  lord  of  the  ascendant.  .  .  .  And  I 
did  see  in  that  noble  person  such  sound  principles,  such  an 
enlargement  of  mind,  such  clear  and  sagacious  sense,  and  such 
unshaken  fortitude,  as  have  bound  me,  as  well  as  others  much 
better  than  me,  by  an  inviolable  attachment  to  him  from  that  time 
forward.  ...  I  stood  near  him ;  and  his  face,  to  use  the  expression 
of  the  Scripture  of  the  first  martyr — his  face  was  as  if  it  had  been 
the  face  of  an  angel.  I  do  not  know  how  others  feel ;  but  if  I  had 
stood  in  that  situation,  I  never  would  have  exchanged  it  for  all  that 
kings  in  their  profusion  could  bestow.  I  did  hope  that  that  day's 
danger  and  honor  would  have  been  a  bond  to  hold  us  all  together 
forever.  — Burke. 

O,  sing  unto  the  Lord  a  new  song: 

Sing  unto  the  Lord,  all  the  earth. 

Sing  unto  the  Lord,  bless  his  name ; 

Show  forth  his  salvation  from  day  to  day. 

Declare  his  glory  among  the  nations. 

His  marvelous  works  among  all  peoples. 

For  great  is  the  Lord,  and  highly  to  be  praised  : 

He  is  to  be  feared  above  all  gods. 

For  all  the  gods  of  the  people  are  idols : 

But  the  Lord  made  the  heavens. 

Honor  and  majesty  are  before  him : 

Strength  and  beauty  are  in  his  sanctuary. 

Ps,  xcvi.,  1-6. 
Ho !  gallant  nobles  of  the  League,  look  that  your  arms  be  bright ! 
Ho!  burghers  of  St.  Genevieve,  keep  watch  and  ward  to-night! 
For  our  God  hath  crushed  the  tyrant,  our  God  hath  raised  the  slave, 
And  mocked  the  counsel  of  the  wise,  and  the  valor  of  the  brave. 
Then  glory  to  his  holy  name,  from  whom  all  glories  are ; 
And  glory  to  our  sovereign  lord,  King  Henry  of  Navarre. 

—The  Battle  of  Ivry.    Macaulay. 

PEDAGOGICAL     ASPECTS. 

These  aspects,  having  been  dwelt  upon  at  some  length  in  the 
preceding  discussion,  may  be  dismissed  with  a  few  words. 


THE  CRITERION  OF  FORCE  113 

The  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of  Force  and  Stress  is  to 
serve  as  a  standard  of  criticism,  not  as  a  foundation  for 
mechanical  drills.  There  is  a  school  of  reading  pedagogy, 
with  lamentably  extended  sway,  that  argues,  since  there  are 
found  various  kinds  of  stress  in  our  speech,  therefore  we  must 
drill  our  pupils  on  these.  Nothing  could  be  farther  from  the 
truth.  Stress  denotes  a  state  of  mind.  If  our  philosophy  of 
stress  is  sound,  it  should  teach  us  that  the  mental  state  finds 
instinctive  expression  in  one  form  of  stress  or  another,  and 
consequently  we  must  get  the  state  before  we  can  get  the  stress. 
"We  might  add  that  this  is  true  of  Time,  Pitch,  and  Quality, 
as  well  as  of  Stress. 

Do  not  tell  a  child  to  read  louder.  If  you  do,  you  will  get 
loudness — that  awful,  grating  schoolboy  loudness — ^without  a 
particle  of  expression  in  it.  Many  a  child  reads  well,  but  is 
bashful.  When  we  tell  him  to  read  louder,  he  braces  himself 
for  the  effort  and  kills  the  quality,  which  is  the  finer  breath 
and  spirit  of  oral  expression,  and  gives  us  a  purely  physical 
thing — ^f  orce.  /  Put  your  weak -voiced  readers  on  the  platform ; 
let  them  face  me  class  and  talk  to  you,  seated  in  the  middle 
of  the  room,  and  you  will  get  all  the  force  you  need.  On  the 
whole,  we  have  too  much  force  rather  than  too  little.  Let 
the  teacher  learn  that  we  want  quality,  not  quantity,  and  our 
statement  of  the  mental  action  behind  force  will  be  of  much 
benefit  in  creating  the  proper  conditions. 


PART  TWO 


METHOD   OF  INSTRUCTION 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    MEIS^TAL    ATTITUDE    OF    THE    READER 

In  our  knowledge  of  ^  the  psychology  of  the  elements  of 
expression,  we  have  the  solution  of  the  difficulties  resulting 
from  the  complexity  and  intangibility  of  vocal  expression. 
The  teacher  now  knows  what  to  look  for,  and  hence  is  enabled 
to  diagnose  the  case.  There  is  now  the  second  step  to  be 
taken  in  the  development  of  the  teacher:  he  must  have 
method.  It  can  hardly  be  claimed  that  there  is  any  definite 
progression  in  our  instruction.  In  the  primary  grades,  the 
pupils  learn  the  letters,  their  sounds,  and  a  meagre  amount 
of  expression.  After  that  the  teaching  is  haphazard.  This  is 
not  the  case  with  arithmetic  or  history,  or  geography;  why 
should  it  be  so  in  reading?  The  answer  is  clear.  For  many 
reasons,  not  difficult  to  ascertain,  the  child  has  a  vague  idea 
that  reading  is  simply  vocal  utterance;  that  his  work  as  a 
reader  is  done  when  he  has  pronounced  the  words.  This  state 
of  mind  may  be  attributed,  first,  to  his  primary  training,  and, 
second,  to  the  perfunctoriness  of  the  reading  lesson  in  the 
grammar  grades.  We  seem  to  be  satisfied,  in  the  beginning, 
if  a  pupil  learns  to  recognize  and  pronounce  words.  This  is  a 
serious  error.  We  should  never  for  a  moment  forget  that  our 
purpose  in  giving  pupils  the  ability  to  recognize  words  is  to 
enable  them  to  extract  the  thought  from  the  printed  page. 
Hence,  from  the  outset,  as  was  enjoined  in  the  Introduction, 
we  should  lay  the  least  possible  stress  upon  word-getting,  and, 
contrariwise,  all  possible  stress  on  thought-getting.  If  the 
primary  teachers  should  succeed  in  developing  the  state  of 
mind  that  would  cause  the  pupils  to  go  to  the  printed  page  as 


118  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

they  go  to  the  feet  of  one  who  has  a  story  to  tell,  we  should  be 
willing  to  ask  for  nothing  else  of  them  as  a  result  of  all  their 
teaching. 

But  let  us  accept  reading  as  we  find  it  to-day,  and  let  us 
suppose  the  pupil  is  about  ten  or  eleven  years  of  age.  What 
is  the  first  step?  To  impress  upon  him  that  the  printed  page 
is  a  picture;  that  it  contains  ideas,  sights,  sounds;  that  it 
takes  the  place  of  the  author,  and  that  he  must  listen  to  it  as 
to  the  voice  of  the  author.  This  is  the  all-important  factor. 
Many  of  us  think  we  are  following  this  plan,  when,  in  reality, 
we  defeat  our  ends  by  the  way  we  use  the  means.  We  allow 
slovenly  reading  and  pass  over  the  grossest  carelessness ;  so 
that,  unconsciously,  the  pupil  forms  the  loosest  habits  of 
expression.  Then  the  pupil  must  be  stimulated  to  hold  the 
thought;  to  let  it  hold  him,  if  you  will.  This,  too,  is  a  very 
necessary  part  of  the  training.  The  defective  reading  of 
preachers  and  authors  is  not  due  to  the  fact  that  they  cannot 
get  the  thought,  but  that  they  are  not  dwelling  upon  it  in 
detail  while  reading.  The  third  stage  in  the  first  step  is  to 
train  the  pupil  so  that  he  will  never  get  up  to  read  without 
the  consciousness  that  he  has  something  to  give.  Let  the 
pupils,  and,  first  of  all,  the  teacher,  close  their  books,  and  so 
give  the  poor  reader  some  encouragement.  Do  not  have  him 
read  to  the  backs  of  the  class.  How  should  we  like  to  address 
an  audience  of  inexpressive  backs?  The  following  of  this  last 
suggestion  will  produce  wonderful  results,  and  quickly  too. 
But  it  has  another  value :  it  compels  the  class  to  think,  to  fol- 
low the  reader,  to  get  thought  through  the  ear  (a  talent 
becoming  rarer  every  day),  and,  above  all,  it  stimulates  the 
imagination.  Summarized,  the  first  step  means.  Get  the 
thought^  hold  the  thought^  give  the  thought.  Keep  at  this  for 
a  month,  if  necessary. 

The  one  object  of  this  lesson  is  to  impress  upon  the  mind 


THE  MENTAL  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  READER  119 

of  the  pupil  that  words  have  no  meaning  unless  they  stimulate 
thought.  It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  add  that  the  teacher 
should  be  on  his  guard  against  teaching  inflections  and  pauses 
and  the  like,  as  such.  ISTo  other  aim  should  be  held  in  mind 
than  that  of  getting  the  pupil  to  see  clearly  and  to  express 
forcibly. 

The  teacher  should  use  constantly  such  criticism  as,  "Is 
that  the  thought?"  or,  "Won't  you  tell  that  to  me?"  This 
method  will  soon  set  the  pupil  to  thinking.  It  will  gi'adually 
impress  upon  him  the  true  function  of  the  reading  lesson. 
There  will  soon  disappear  that  dreadful  perfunctoriness  so 
characteristic  of  class-room  reading.  How  much  preparation 
does  the  pupil  now  give  to  his  reading?  Practically  none. 
He  prepares  those  lessons  in  which  he  gradually  learns  he  can 
be  definitely  tested:  his  arithmetic,  spelling,  composition, 
geography.  Then,  if  he  has  any  time,  he  may  look  over  his 
reading  lesson  to  discover  if  there  are  any  "hard"  words,  and 
when  he  has  mastered  these  he  thinks  his  work  is  done.  But 
let  us  remember  that  such  preparation  is  by  no  means 
adequate.  There  are  passages  in  every  lesson  which  require 
patient  study,  even  though  each  word  may  be  simple.  Words 
in  themselves  mean  little;  it  is  words  in  relation  that  we 
must  study. 

This  first  step  includes  all  the  others.  It  may  be  asked 
then,  "Why  are  there  others?"  The  subsequent  chapters 
will  deal  with  this  question,  but  it  may  be  explained  here  that 
the  purpose  of  this  first  step  is  to  create  and  make  permanent 
the  proper  atmosphere  of  the  reading  hour.  The  criticisms 
should  be  general,  not  particular,  and  the  teacher  should  be 
careful  to  offer  no  discouraging  criticism.  Every  effort  should 
be  made  to  stimulate  the  pupil.  He  should  be  urged  to  get 
the  thought,  and  especially  impressed  with  the  idea  that  the 
class  depend  upon  him  for  their  understanding  of  the  text. 


120  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Choose  selections  from  all  sources — from  the  history  lesson, 
and  from  the  geography  lesson.  Let  these  selections  be  fairly 
simple,  and  above  all,  vital  and  interesting.  Barbara  Friet- 
chie^  Longfellow's  Peace- Pipe  from  Hiawatha^  and  Brown- 
ing's Ride  from  Qlient  to  Aix,  or  The  Pied  Piper,  and  even 
shorter  extracts  of  prose  or  poetry,  are  excellent  material. 
Give  out  a  dozen  of  these,  let  each  pupil  learn  one  by  heart, 
and  tell  it, — not  declaim  it, — to  his  classmates. 

Let  the  teacher  not  worry  because  this  process  is  slow  and 
threatens  to  leave  the  work  outlined  for  a  given  term  incom- 
plete. It  is  not  the  quantity  but  the  quality  we  are  after. 
But  by  this  method  we  shall  in  time  cover  more  ground  than 
we  now  do  in  a  given  period.  If  we  continually  offer  such 
criticism  as  will  impress  the  pupil  that  thought -getting  is 
everything,  that  reading  is  but  the  expression  of  that  thought, 
he  will  go  to  his  history,  and  geography,  and  arithmetic  lesson 
for  thought ;  so  that  the  time  spent  in  the  reading  hour  is 
virtually  just  the  training  for  every  other  lesson.  Finally, 
this  is  the  true  preparation  for  the  making  of  sight -readers. 
It  is  true,  one  should  be  able  to  read  better  after  some  prepara- 
tion than  he  does  at  sight ;  but  everyone  should  be  able,  by  the 
time  he  leaves  the  public  school,  to  read  any  ordinary  passage 
at  sight  without  blundering.  The  mental  attitude  formed  by 
the  method  urged  will  cause  the  student  to  approach  the 
printed  page  v/arily,  prepared  to  deal  with  its  difficulties,  and 
will  thus  produce  better  reading. 

A  word  to  those  who  ride  the  sight-reading  hobby  too  hard. 
It  is  only  the  experienced  reader  who  can  read  well  at  sight. 
To  ask  an  immature  pupil  to  read  at  sight  is  to  do  one  of  two 
things :  if  he  is  timid,  it  frightens  him ;  if  he  is  a  poor  reader 
it  simply  fastens  the  careless  habits  upon  him,  by  leading  him 
to  believe,  by  implication,  that  reading  is  merely  pronuncia- 
tion.    In  the  upper  grades,  there  should  be  sight-reading, 


THE  MENTAL  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  READER  121 

but  only  where  the  previous  trai'iing  has  been  methodical. 
It  is  well  to  give  the  class  a  chance  to  read  over  the  selection 
for  a  few  minutes  before  the  test  is  made. 

Each  teacher  must  decide  for  himself  how  he  will  develop 
the  foregoing  principles.  The  following  plan,  however, 
representing  the  actual  work  of  a  teacher  before  his  class,  will 
be  suggestive : 

We  are  going  to  study  how  to  read ;  and  the  first  thing  w^e  must 
know  is,  What  is  reading? 

Now,  before  we  answer  this  question,  let  us  try  to  get  an  answer 
to  another :  What  is  speaking?  Speaking  is  telling  someone  what 
I  am  thinking  or  feehng.  So,  if  you  were  in  the  author's  school,  he 
could  tell  you  the  thoughts  he  has.  But  you  are  not,  and  so  he 
must  write  them.  Now  we  are  ready  to  answer  the  question.  What 
is  reading?  Reading  is  getting  thought  from  the  printed  or  written 
page. 

Let  us  go  a  little  further.  Suppose  a  writer  wants  to  say  some- 
thing to  you  through  the  printed  page,  what  does  he  do?  He  first 
thinks  over  very  carefully  what  he  has  to  say,  and  then  chooses 
and  writes  the  words  that  will  give  you  his  meaning.  But  remem- 
ber, you  must  study  his  words  and  think  about  them  as  carefully 
as  he  did  when  he  wrote  them. 

Have  you  been  attentive  so  far?  Let  us  see.  Can  you  tell  me 
what  speaking  is?  what  reading  is?  If  you  can  not,  do  you  not 
see  you  have  not  been  paying  attention? 

Getting  thought  from  the  printed  page  should  be  just  like 
listening  carefully  to  speaking.  Yes,  you  must  be  more  careful  in 
reading,  because  the  author  is  not  here  to  explain  things  to  you, 
or  to  repeat  his  words.  You  have  only  the  printed  words,  and  if 
you  do  not  listen  very  carefully  to  what  they  say,  you  will  not 
understand  him.  Now  let  us  see  whether  this  is  clear.  Here  is  a 
sentence;  can  you  see  what  I  see?  "The  next  day,  which  was 
Saturday,  the  king  called  his  generals  and  some  of  his  friends  to  the 
royal  tent,  and  told  them,  in  a  quiet  voice,  that  at  daybreak  on 
Tuesday  he  was  going  to  return  to  London  and  give  up  the  war." 

Now  take  your  eyes  off  the  blackboard  and  tell  us  all  you  saw, 
and  tell  it  in  just  the  order  the  pictiu*es  occur  on  the  board.     If  you 


122  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

miss  any  steps,  you  must  read  again  and  again  imtil  you  see  the 
whole  thought  so  clearly  that  it  seems  real ;  then  I  am  sure  you  will 
be  able  to  tell  it  correctly.  You  need  not  use  my  words ;  just  use 
your  own  language. 

Now  you  are  ready  to  take  the  next  step.  Read  the  sentence  to 
the  class  so  that  you  make  them  see  just  what  you  see.  Be  sure 
you  never  forget  this. 

You  must  remember  that  unless  you  try  to  make  them  see  the 
pictures  you  have  in  mind,  they  will  be  very  likely  not  to  under- 
stand you. 

Now,  what  have  w^e  been  doing?  First,  we  studied  the  meaning 
of  the  words ;  second,  we  got  several  pictures ;  and  third,  we  tried 
to  give  those  pictures  to  others.  So  we  see  there  are  two  kinds  of 
reading :  the  first  for  ourselves,  the  second  for  others.  The  first  kind 
must  always  go  before  the  second:  for  if  we  have  nothing  in 
our  mind  to  tell,  how  can  we  give  it  to  others? 

Let  us  remember  then,  that  reading  for  others  is  just  like  talk- 
ing to  them,  and  unless  we  get  from  the  page  just  the  thought  the 
writer  had  in  mind  we  cannot  give  that  thought  to  another.  Some- 
times it  is  not  easy  to  get  this  thought ;  but  if  you  will  study  care- 
fully, it  will  become  clearer  and  clearer,  until  at  last  it  is  just  as 
easy  to  understand  as  if  it  had  been  your  own.  I  want  to  give  you  a 
short  drill,  and  then  our  first  lesson  will  be  over.  "In  the  summer 
the  grass  is  green,  but  it  turns  brown  in  the  fall."  Can  you  im- 
agine how  green  grass  looks?  how  brown  grass  looks?  Do  you 
notice  that  fall  is  the  time  when  grass  is  brown?  Again,  "He  was 
a  very  tall  man,  with  light,  curly  hair,  tanned  skin  and  blue  eyes. 
His  shoulders  were  stooped  like  those  of  a  farmer  or  of  one  who  has 
been  digging  in  the  mines. ' '  Close  your  eyes  and  then  call  up  the 
picture  of  this  man.  Do  you  see  him  as  a  real  man?  Now  read 
this  sentence  aloud  so  that  your  classmates  may  get  the  same 
picture  that  you  have. 

These  are  the  three  things  we  have  learned  in  our  first  lesson, 
and  they  are  very,  very  important :  We  must  get  the  thought ;  we 
must  hold  the  thought;  and  we  must  give  the  thought.  This  is 
reading  aloud. 

Remember,  I  want  you  to  be  getting  these  pictures  from 
everything  you  read;  from  your  geography  lesson,  your  history 
lesson,  and  even  your  arithmetic  lesson.  I  am  sure  you  will  get 
these  lessons  better  than  you  ever  did  before. 


THE  MENTAL  ATTITUDE  OF  "f-HE  READER         123 

Here  are  some  interesting  stories  and  parts  of  stories  which  you 
must  tell  to  the  class.  Be  sure  you  understand  them,  and  then  tell 
them  so  that  your  classmates  will  understand  them  too. 

*  Keep  busy !  'tis  better  than  standing  aside 
And  dreaming,  and  sighing,  and  waiting  the  tide. 
In  life's  earnest  battle,  they  only  prevail 
Who  daily  march  onward,  and  never  say  fail. 

There's  a  rogue  at  play  in  my  sunlit  room, 

And  scarcely  he  rests  from  fun ; 
Floor,  window,  shelf,  or  closet's  gloom 

All  are  to  him  as  one. 

He  opens  the  books  and  peeps  within, 

The  paper  turns  inside  out. 
Snatches  my  thread,  and  thinks  no  sin 

To  throw  my  work  about. 

He  clutches  the  curtains  and  whisks  them  down, 

Then  pulls  at  the  picture  cords. 
Tosses  my  hair  in  the  way  of  his  own, 

Nor  heeds  my  coaxing  words. 

I  wonder  if  one  so  glad  and  young 

Will  ever  be  prim  and  old? 
He  answers  not,  for  he  has  no  tongue — 

Yet  tells  sweet  tales  as  are  told. 

He  climbs  the  walls,  yet  has  no  feet ; 

No  wings,  but  flies  the  same ; 
No  hands,  no  head,  but  breath  so  sweet— 

For  West  Wind  is  his  name. 

In  closing  this  chapter,  it  should  be  remarked  that  the  time 
to  be  spent  on  this  and  subsequent  steps  depends  upon  the 
circumstances.  In  the  lower  grades  more  time  will  be  neces- 
sary than  in  the  upper.     If  the  teacher  of  the  eighth  grade 

♦  other  examples  should  be  found  by  the  teacher.  With  a  little  care 
much  valuable  material  may  be  selected. 


124  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

(the  highest)  wishes  to  devote  some  time  to  teaching  read- 
ing, he  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  needs  of  the 
class,  and  then  use  such  of  the  steps,  and  in  such  order,  as 
are  most  likely  to  meet  those  needs.  In  the  lower  classes  it 
is  suggested  that  the  teacher  follow  in  a  general  way  the  plan 
set  forth  in  this  book.  About  one  step  a  month  is  all  ^that  a 
pupil  can  grasp.  After  he  has  the  principle,  let  the  teacher 
take  up  the  regular  reading  lesson,  laying  special  stress  upon 
the  principles  already  covered. 

*  It  is  believed  that  the  reading  lessons  contained  in  this  series 
are  the  first  attempt  to  present  in  an  orderly  and  philosophic 
manner  the  difficulties  the  pupils  have  in  learning  to  read. 

There  is  very  little  doubt  that  the  reading  lesson  hardly  pays  for 
the  time  spent  upon  it.  All  authorities  are  agreed  that,  except  in 
rare  cases,  pupils  do  not  read  any  better  at  the  end  of  the  school  year 
than  they  do  at  the  beginning,  except  that  they  may  pronounce 
with  a  little  more  facility  or  are  possessed  of  a  somewhat  wider 
vocabulary.  In  many  class  rooms,  reading  becomes  a  lesson  in 
composition,  spelling,  definition,  and  the  like. 

The  method  in  vogue  in  certain  districts  of  telling  pupils  about 
Inflections,  and  Time,  and  Kinds  of  Emphasis,  is  certainly  faulty. 
On  the  other  hand,  very  little  more  progress  has  been  made  by 
those  who,  in  a  very  general  and  vague  manner,  tell  the  pupil  to 
get  the  thought.  As  a  result  of  the  methods  heretofore  in  use,  it  has 
been  found  impossible  for  the  teacher  in  any  given  grade  to  deter- 
mine how  much  real  knowledge  of  reading  a  pupil  has  who  has 
just  been  promoted  from  a  lower  grade. 

In  the  lessons  here  presented,  it  is  impressed  upon  the  pupil  not 
only  that  he  must  get  the  thought,  but  he  is  shown  how  to  get  it. 
The  various  difficulties  of  reading  are  presented  one  at  a  time,  and 
further,  are  so  graded  that  the  least  difficult  shall  precede  the  more 
complex.  It  is  well  known  that  the  reading  lesson,  as  a  reading 
lesson,  gets  little  or  no  preparation  by  the  pupils.  By  the  method 
here  laid  down  careful  preparation  is  a  necessity ;  and  the  lesson 

*  From  the  introduction  to  the  author's  "  How  to  Read  Aloud,"  which 
is  out  of  print.  AH  the  essential  features,  however,  are  included  in  the 
present  work. 


THE  MENTAL  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  READER  125 

which,  as  a  rule,  is  very  ill  prepared,  may  now  be  studied  at  home 
with  a  very  definite  object  in  view,  and  more  important  still,  the 
pupil  can  be  held  responsible  for  definite  results. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  young  pupil  knows  nothing  of 
inflections,  emphasis,  etc. ,  and  cares  still  less  about  them.  While 
the  teacher  may  be  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  whole  range 
of  voca^  technique  in  reading,  he  should  try  to  avoid  the  use  of 
technical  terms  with  the  pupils,  especially  with  the  younger  ones. 
This  is  the  very  essence  of  the  present  method,  which  is  based  upon 
a  well-established  psychological  law :  If  the  thought  is  right,  the 
expression  will  be  right.  Talking  to  pupils  about  technique,  only 
confuses  them  and  in  many  cases  results  in  gross  affectations.  The 
mind  is  taken  from  the  thought  to  the  form  of  its  expression.  We 
must  remember  that  shyness,  and  other  forms  of  self -consciousness 
(which  so  often  mar  the  reading)  are  really  but  signs  that  the 
pupil's  mental  action  is  awry.  The  reading  may  be  more  quickly 
and  more  permanently  improved  by  eradicating  the  self -conscious- 
ness than  by  resorting  to  technical  drills.  Make  the  pupil  want  to 
read,  and  the  chances  are  strongly  in  favor  of  his  losing  self- 
consciousness. 

While  it  is  not  possible  in  the  space  allotted  the  author  of  these 
articles  to  give  the  fullest  possible  instruction,  yet  these  lessons  will 
serve  a  definite  purpose  by  presenting  to  the  pupils,  in  a  rational 
order,  the  various  difficulties  everyone  has  to  overcome  in  learning 
to  read.  There  may  be  certain  phases  of  technique  that  a  teacher 
may  miss  in  this  series  of  lessons,  but  it  is  certain,  that  if  they  are 
carefully  taught,  the  pupils  will  improve  not  only  along  the  partic- 
ular line  laid  down  in  each  lesson,  but  along  the  whole  line  of 
reading  in  general. 

This  method  is  introduced  in  the  hope  that  the  measure  of  a 
pupil's  progress  will  not  be  gauged  by  the  number  of  selections  he 
reads  in  a  given  period.  It  is  better  to  prepare  carefully  and  philo- 
sophically six  or  eight  lessons  in  one-half  of  the  school  year,  than  to 
endeavor  to  cover  three  times  as  many  in  the  usual  hurried  fashion. 
The  teacher  may  be  sure  that  when  the  first  six  or  eight  lessons  are 
thus  carefully  prepared,  the  progress  thereafter  will  be  more  rapid. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  pupil  who  will  spend  two  years  in  this 
graded  work  will  be  able  to  read  any  ordinary  selection  with  ease, 
and  with  pleasure  to  the  listener. 

It  is  urged  (1)  that  the  teacher  use  additional  examples  under 


126  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

each  new  principle,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  have  the  principle 
impressed  upon  him  by  selecting  new  examples  for  himself  and  by 
reading  them  aloud  in  class;  (2)  that  the  same  lesson  be  repeated 
as  many  times,  with  the  same  or  new  illustrations,  as  may  be 
necessary  to  assure  the  teacher  that  the  class  has  thoroughly 
grasped  the  spirit  of  the  lesson;  and  (3)  that  the  teacher  insist 
upon  most  caref  al  and  adequate  preparation.  So,  and  so  ouly,  can 
we  hope  to  teach  reading. 

The  main  objects  of  the  first  lessons  are  two.  First ;  to  develop 
what  may  be  termed  the  logical  side  of  reading ;  in  other  words, 
the  intellectual  side.  The  greatest  stress  should  be  laid  on  getting 
the  sense,  which  is,  of  course,  the  basis  of  all  reading.  The 
emotional  side  need  not  be  altogether  neglected,  but  should  be 
always  subsidiary  to  the  intellectual.  If  the  teacher  succeed  in 
getting  the  expression  vital,  nothing  more  should  be  expected.  To 
get  the  sense  and  to  express  it  with  earnestness  is  the  first  step. 
Second ;  the  teacher  is  urged  not  to  follow  mechanically  the  order 
of  the  general  reading  lessons.  If  Lesson  XX  offer  a  better 
opportunity  than,  let  us  say.  Lesson  X  for  illustrating  the  principle 
laid  down  in  any  of  the  special  lessons,  the  former  should  be  used, 
no  matter  what  the  preceding  general  lesson  may  have  been.  The 
teacher  should  be  acquainted  with  the  pedagogical  possibilities  of 
all  the  general  lessons,  and  should  use  such,  irrespective  of  their 
place  in  the  book,  as  are  best  adapted  at  the  moment  to  assist  the 
pupils  in  mastering  the  principle  in  any  given  special  reading  les- 
son. I  have  found  much  good  in  keeping  a  little  note-book  on  the 
following  plan:  I  give  a  page  to  each  of  the  steps,  and  every 
example  I  come  across,  no  matter  in  what  book — history,  geography, 
reader — is  noted,    Thus: 

EXAMPLES  OF  CONTRAST. 

Book.  Page.  Paragraph. 

's  History, 250  3 

's       "  ........     109  1 

Reader  (3) 87  8 

In  this  way,  the  teacher  has  always  plenty  of  illustrative  matter 
on  hand. 

While  not  in  entire  sympathy  with  the  method  that  compels 
teachers  to  cover  a  certain  number  of  reading  lessons  in  a  given 


THE  MENTAL  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  READER         127 

time,  yet  I  am  sensible  that  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to 
change  all  this  at  once.  Recognizing  the  futility  of  such  an  effort, 
I  advise  the  teacher  to  conform  to  this  arbitrary  and  unscientific 
method  until  the  community  is  educated  to  the  newer  method. 
The  best  results  may  be  obtained,  under  the  circumstances,  by 
following  some  such  plan  as  this :  Begin  with  the  first  special  lesson 
as  soon  as  possible.  Then,  having  dwelt  on  that  as  long  as  neces- 
sary, pass  to  the  regular  reading  lessons,  bearing  in  mind  that 
until  the  second  special  lesson,  the  principle  of  the  first  should  be 
constantly  reiterated.  For  the  entire  time  (say  a  month)  between 
the  first  and  second  special  lessons  let  the  teacher  revert  to  the 
former  again  and  again.  Let  the  corrections  be  made  over  and 
over  by  asking  such  questions  as,  ''Is  that  the  way  you  would  say 
it  if  you  were  talking?"  or,  "You  are  not  trying  to  make  us  see 
the  picture,"  and  so  on.  After  the  second  special  lesson  has  been 
taken  up  in  class,  and  before  the  third,  the  endeavor  of  a  teacher 
should  be  to  enforce  the  principles  of  the  first  two  lessons.  This 
plan  should  be  kept  up  until  the  last  lesson  has  been  taught. 


CHAPTEK    VI 


GROUPIKG 


If  the  work  of  the  first  step  has  been  carefully  done,  the 
transition  to  the  second  step  will  present  few  difficulties.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  pupil  has  been  grouping  unconsciously, 
but  in  a  way  more  or  less  uncertain.  The  purpose  of  the  next 
step  is  to  fix  firmly  the  habit  of  grouping.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  pupil  pronounces  as  many  words  in  one  group  as  his  eye 
can  take  in  and  his  voice  utter ;  consequently,  his  reading  is 
choppy  and  often  meaningless. 

At  the  outset  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of 
extracts.  Any  extract  will  not  do.  Simple  passages,  with 
simple  ideas,  are  needed.  Avoid  complex,  involved,  inverted 
rhetoric.  Later  on,  when  proper  habits  have  been  formed, 
the  difficulties  may  be  increased ;  but  we  shall  meet  only  with 
discouragement  if  we  introduce  them  too  soon.  The  following 
is  just  difficult  enough  to  bring  out  the  efforts  of  an  ordi- 
nary child  of  ten  or  eleven : 

Once  upon  a  time  there  lived  a  very  rich  man,  and  a  king  besides, 
whose  name  was  Midas ;  and  he  had  a  little  daughter,  whom  nobody 
but  myself  ever  heard  of,  and  whose  name  I  either  never  knew,  or 
have  entirely  forgotten.  So,  because  I  love  odd  names  for  little 
girls,  I  choose  to  call  her  Mary  gold. — The  Golden  Touch.  Haw- 
thorne. 

The  teacher  should  use  a  great  many  isolated  extracts. 
These  may  not  be  so  interesting  as  entire  selections,  but  if 
chosen  carefully  and  read  with  a  definite  object,  it  is  surprising 
how  they  hold  the  attention  of  the  class.     It  may  also  be  pos* 

128 


GROUPING  129 

sible  to  find  short  stories  to  supplement  the  extracts.  Many 
good  extracts  may  be  found  in  the  reader  or  even  in  some  of 
the  other  books  the  children  are  using. 

The  reason  for  urging  this  plan  is  that  few  reading  books 
present  the  difficulties  of  reading,  in  a  rational,  graded  man- 
ner. Any  selection  may  contain  the  simplest  problem  and  the 
most  difficult  in  one  paragraph.  The  pupil  must  be  trained 
to  get  his  ideas  from  the  printed  page  in  groups,  and  such 
training  can  surely  be  gained  better  by  using  carefully  selected 
passages  than  by  the  present  aimless  wandering  among  a 
labyrinth  of  words.  It  is  admitted  that  a  good  teacher  of 
reading  may  be  able  to  get  along  without  calling  the  attention 
of  the  class  to  grouping  as  a  definite  step ;  but  he  must  cer- 
tainly have  that  step  in  mind  as  part  of  the  development  of  a 
reader. 

In  this  lesson  we  begin  exercises  in  what  might  be  called 
* 'mental  technique."  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these 
lessons  are  planned  with  the  object  of  presenting  one  element 
at  a  time,  and  the  pupil  must  not  be  expected  to  read  well 
where  he  has  had  no  previous  drill.  In  this  lesson,  therefore, 
the  pupil  should  be  held  responsible  for  what  he  has  learned 
in  the  first  and  second  lessons  only.  It  must  further  be 
remembered  that  all  corrections  should  be  made  by  putting 
such  questions  as,  ''Is  that  the  whole  picture?"  or,  "Have 
you  not  given  us  more  than  one  picture?"  Never  tell  a  pupil 
to  make  a  pause  here  or  a  pause  there,  or  to  read  faster  or 
more  slowly.  Such  corrections  are  useless.  We  must  learn 
to  rely  upon  the  thinking  to  govern  the  rate  of  speed,  or  the 
length  and  frequency  of  the  pauses. 

It  might  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  colloquial  speech 
pauses  are  less  frequent.  In  other  words,  the  groups  are 
longer. 

As  a  result  of  such  training  as  the  pupil  gets  in  this  lesson 


130  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

we  shall  note  that  he  will  learn  to  look  ahead,  and  so  rid  him- 
self of  the  too  general  tendency  to  utter  words  as  soon  as  he 
sees  them,  regardless  of  the  sense.  The  process  of  recognizing 
words  and  pronouncing  them  simultaneously  is  attended  with 
no  small  amount  of  danger.  It  begets  a  fatal  facility  in  read- 
ing that  is  a  positive  detriment  to  the  pupil.  There  are  thou- 
sands who  read  glibly  and  yet  are  utterly  ignorant  of  the 
meaning  of  what  they  read.  To  prevent  the  formation  of 
such  a  habit  or  to  break  it  up  where  it  already  exists,  there  is 
no  better  plan  than  that  herein  advocated  for  the  study  of 
grouping.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  method  of  telling 
a  pupil  '*to  pause  before  a  relative  pronoun,  inverted  adjec- 
tives, prepositional  phrases,"  and  the  like,  is  virtually  useless. 
The  thought,  and  not  the  gTammatical  construction,  deter- 
mines the  pause. 

Another  suggestive  lesson  for  the  teaching  of  grouping  is 
offered : 

You  remember  that  in  our  last  lesson  we  learned  that  we  must 
first  get  the  thought  before  we  could  read.  Now  we  are  to  study 
how  to  get  the  thought. 

Did  you  ever  notice  how  you  think?  If  you  hear  the  word 
**Car,"  what  do  you  think  of?  Some,  of  a  horse  car,  some,  of  an 
electric  car,  and  some,  of  a  steam  car.  So  you  see  the  word  *'Car" 
by  itself  does  not  give  us  a  very  clear  picture.  The  words,  "I 
saw, ' '  do  not  mean  very  much  either.  For  unless  we  know  what  you 
saw  we  get  nothing  to  think  about.  The  two  words  "in  a"  do  not 
mean  much,  and  by  this  time  you  know  why. 

Let  us  put  all  these  words  together  and  add  a  word  or  two:  *'I 
saw  a  man  in  a  steam  car."  Now  we  have  a  clear^icture.  What 
do  we  learn  from  this?  We  learn  that  a  single  word  does  not  give 
us  a  clear  picture,  and  that  it  takes  three,  and  four,  and  sometimes 
many  words,  to  give  us  a  picture.  We  can  think  ''I  saw  a  man"  or 
"in  a  steam  car,"  but  we  get  a  complete  thought  only  when  we 
put  these  two  groups  of  words  together.  We  notice  also  that 
while  it  takes  just  a  moment  to  see  a  picture,  it  often  takes  many 
words  to  describe  it. 


GROUPING  131 

What  we  have  done  is  called  grouping;  that  is,  reading  several 
words  together  just  as  we  read  the  syllables  of  a  word.  Let  us  try 
some  examples.  "Charles  gave  a  sled  to  his  brother."  Here  there 
are  two  groups:  One  ending  at  "sled,"  the  other,  at  "brother."  "I 
went  to  King  Street  with  my  sister  to  buy  a  new  hat."  Here  we 
have  three  groups.     Can  you  pick  them  out? 

The  last  thing  we  are  to  learn  in  this  lesson  is  that  every  group 
of  words  has  a  picture  in  it,  and  that  we  must  not  read  aloud  any 
word  until  we  have  got  the  thought  or  the  picture  in  the  group. 

Pick  out  the  groups  in  the  following  sentence,  and  then  read 
aloud,  but  be  sure  you  pay  attention  to  the  picture  in  each  group : 
* ' When-our-school-closes  for-the -summer- vacation,  some-of -us-go-to- 
the-countr^r^  bthers-go-to-the-lakesj  some-go-to-the-mountains^  and- 
many  stay-in-the-city. ' ' 

For  to-morrow's  lesson  *  I  want  you  to  bring  in  the  groups  in  the 
following  examples,  putting  hyphens  between  the  words  of  each 
group,  just  as  we  did  in  the  sentence  about  the  simamer  vacation. 

*The  teacher  should  select  the  examples,  not  too  many,  and  write 
them  on  the  board ;  or  they  may  be  selected  from  the  reader.  Drills  of 
this  kind  should  be  continued  until  correct  habits  are  formed,  but 
should  cease  before  the  pupils  become  tired  of  them. 


CHAPTER   VII 


SUCCESSION^    OF   IDEAS 


The  next  step  is  but  a  very  short  one  in  advance  of  the 
second,  and  yet  one  of  exceeding  importance.  It  deals  with 
the  succession  of  ideas.  Every  long  sentence  is  made  up  of 
small  phrases  more  or  less  intimately  connected.  The  inflec- 
tion denotes  this  connection.  If  several  phrases  point  forward 
to  a  thought  further  on,  the  end  of  each  of  these  will  be 
marked  by  a  rising  inflection;  if  any  one  of  the  phrases  be 
of  sufficient  importance  to  demand  particular  emphasis,  its 
end  will  be  marked  by  the  falling  inflection. 

As  was  said  in  Chapter  II,  the  reading  of  a  long  sentence 
presents  great  difficulties  for  the  child.  He  loses  himself  in 
the  maze  of  words,  and  his  mental  condition  is  clearly  shown 
in  his  melody,  which  drifts  about  here  and  there,  like  a  rud- 
derless ship.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  step  to  train  him  in  the 
development  of  his  powers  of  continuous  thinking ;  to  enable 
him  to  keep  in  mind  the  main  idea,  no  matter  how  numerous 
the  details.  This  step  and  that  dealing  with  subordinate 
ideas  have  much  the  same  object  in  view. 

The  following  excerpt  from  the  Introduction  to  The  Song 
of  Hiaivatlia  is  a  good  illustration  of  a  sentence  in  which  the 
sense  is  suspended  through  many  lines : 

Ye,  who  sometimes,  in  your  rambles 
Through  the  green  lanes  of  the  country, 
"Where  the  tangled  barberry-bushes 
Hang  their  tufts  of  crimson  berries 
Over  stone  walls  gray  with  mosses, 
Pause  by  some  neglected  graveyard, 
For  a  while  to  muse,  and  ponder 
133 


SUCCESSION  OF  IDEAS  133 

On  a  half -effaced  inscription, 
Written  with  little  skill  of  song-craft, 
Homely  phrases,  but  each  letter 
Full  of  hope  and  yet  of  heart-break, 
Full  of  all  the  tender  pathos 
Of  the  Here  and  the  Hereafter ; — 
Stay  and  read  this  rude  inscription, 
Read  this  Song  of  Hiawatha ! 

It  is  in  sentences  like  the  following  that  the  pupil  is  likely 
to  fail.     Speaking  of  rain,  the  poet  says: 

How  it  clatters  along  the  roofs, 

Like  the  tramp  of  hoofs ! 

How  it  gushes  and  struggles  out 

From  the  throat  of  the  overflowing  spout ! 

There  may  be  some  justification  for  the  falling  inflection 
on  **roofs";  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  same  inflection 
would  be  incorrect  on  ''out. "  And  yet,  the  very  structure  of 
the  verse  would  be  likely  to  cause  the  careless  reader  to  read 
it  with  that  very  inflection.  This  is  a  typical  case,  and,  if 
this  point  has  been  made  clear,  one  that  should  be  very  helpful 
to  the  teacher.  The  following  passage,  from  the  same  poem, 
affords  another  exercise  in  succession  of  ideas; 

In  the  country,  on  every  side, 

Where  far  and  wide. 

Like  a  leopard's  tawny  and  spotted  hide, 

Stretches  the  plain, 

To  the  dry  grass  and  the  drier  grain 

How  welcome  is  the  rain ! 

Let  us  observe  that  the  plain  does  not  stretch  to  the  dry 
grass.  There  will  be  a  rising  inflection  on  "plain"  as  well  as 
on ''grain."  It  would  make  little  difference  how  brief  the 
pause  after  "plain"  if  it  were  read  with  a  falling  inflection. 


134  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

thus  indicating  a  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  thought; 
the  rising  inflection  is  necessary  to  mark  the  sequence  of 
ideas. 

Pupils  who  should  know  better  frequently  make  mistakes 
of  the  kind  we  have  been  discussing,  in  reading  the  following 
passage : 

^  In  the  furrowed  land 

The  toilsome  and  patient  oxen  stand ; 

Lifting  the  yoke-encumbered  head, 

With  their  dilated  nostrils  spread, 

They  silently  inhale 

The  clover-scented  gale. 

And  the  vapors  that  arise 

From  the  well- watered  and  smoking  soil. 

For  this  rest  in  the  furrow  after  toil 

Their  large  and  lustrous  eyes 

Seem  to  thank  the  Lord, 

More  than  man's  spoken  word. 


Near  at  hand, 

From  under  the  sheltering  trees, 

The  farmer  sees 

His  pastures,  and  his  fields  of  grain, 

As  they  bend  their  tops 

To  the  numberless  beating  drops 

Of  the  incessant  rain. 


The  following  extracts  from  Gulliver'* s  Travels  are  within 
the  comprehension  of  fairly  young  children,  and  will  afford 
good  practice : 

1.  The  empire  of  Blefuscu  is  an  island  situated  to  the  northeast 
of  Lilliput,  from  which  it  is  parted  only  by  a  channel  eight  hundred 
yards  wide. 

2.  I  had  not  yet  seen  it,  and,  upon  this  notice  of  an  intended  inva- 
sion, I  avoided  appearing  on  that  side  of  the  coast,  for  fear  of  being 
discovered  by  some  of  the  enemy's  ships,  who  had  received  no  intel- 
ligence of  me ;  all  intercourse  between  the  two  empires  having  been 


SUCCESSION  OF  IDEAS  135 

strictly  forbidden  during  the  war,  upon  pain  of  death,  and  an 
embargo  laid  by  our  emperor  upon  all  vessels  whatsoever. 

3.  I  walked  toward  the  northeast  coast,  over  against  Blefuscu, 
where,  lying  down  behind  a  hillock,  I  took  out  my  small  perspec- 
tive glass  and  viewed  the  enemy's  fleet  at  anchor,  consisting  of 
about  fifty  men-of-war  and  a  great  number  of  transports.  I  then 
came  back  to  my  house,  and  gave  orders  (for  which  I  had  a  war- 
rant) for  a  great  quantity  of  the  strongest  cable  and  bars  of  iron. 
The  cable  was  about  as  thick  as  pack-thread,  and  the  bars  of  the 
length  and  size  of  a  knitting-needle. 

4.  I  trebled  the  cable  to  make  it  stronger,  and  for  the  same 
reason  I  twisted  three  of  the  iron  bars  together,  bending  the 
extremities  into  a  hook.  Having  thus  fixed  fifty  hooks  to  as  many 
cables,  I  went  back  to  the  northeast  coast,  and  putting  off  my 
coat,  shoes  and  stockings,  walked  into  the  sea  in  my  leathern 
jerkin,  about  half  an  hour  before  high  water.  I  waded  with  what 
haste  I  could,  and  swam  in  the  middle  about  thirty  yards,  till  I  felt 
ground. 

5.  When  I  had  got  out  of  danger,  I  stopped  awhile  to  pick  out 
the  arrows  that  stuck  in  my  hands  and  face,  and  rubbed  on  some  of 
the  same  ointment  that  was  given  me  at  my  first  arrival,  as  I  have 
formerly  mentioned.  I  then  took  off  my  spectacles,  and,  waiting 
about  an  hour,  till  the  tide  was  a  little  fallen,  I  waded  through  the 
middle  with  my  cargo,  and  arrived  safe  at  the  royal  port  of  Lilliput, 

6.  The  emperor  and  his  whole  court  stood  on  the  shore,  expecting 
the  issue  of  this  great  adventure.  They  saw  the  ships  move  for- 
ward in  a  large  half -moon,  but  could  not  discern  me,  who  was  up  to 
my  breast  in  water.  When  I  advanced  to  the  middle  of  the  chan- 
nel, they  were  yet  more  in  pain,  because  I  was  under  water  to  my 
neck.  The  emperor  concluded  me  to  be  drowned,  and  that  the 
enemy's  fleet  was  approaching  in  a  hostile  manner. 

7.  But  he  was  soon  eased  of  his  fears ;  for,  the  channel  growing 
shallower  every  step  I  made,  I  came  in  a  short  time  within  hearing, 
and,  holding  up  the  end  of  the  cable  by  which  the  fleet  was  fastened, 
I  cried  in  a  loud  voice,  "Long  live  the  most  puissant  King  of  Lilli- 
putl"  This  great  prince  received  me  at  my  landing  with  all  pos- 
sible encomimns,  and  created  me  a  nardac  upon  the  spot,  which  is 
>.he  highest  title  of  honor  among  them. 

It  need  hardly  be  noted  that  there  are  many  examples  of 


136  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

momentary  completeness  in  the  preceding  passages;  as,  for 
instance : 

"Lilliput,"  in  paragraph  one. 

*' Ships,"  in  paragraph  two. 

"Anchor,"  in  paragraph  three. 

"Arrival,"  in  paragraph  five. 

"Me,"  "pain,"  in  paragraph  six. 

"Spot,"  in  paragraph  seven. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  purpose  of  this  step  is  to  draw  the 
pupil's  attention  to  two  possibilities  in  every  sentence :  Does 
the  phrase  point  forward,  or  is  it  momentarily  complete? 
Great  care  must  be  observed  not  to  confuse  him  with  state- 
ments regarding  inflections. 

Momentary  completeness  has  been  so  fully  discussed  in  a 
preceding  chapter  that  it  need  not  be  dwelt  upon  further. 

The  following  lesson-talk  may  be  helpful  for  the  teacher : 

Read  to  yourself  this  little  sentence:  "Robert  has  a  slate."  Is 
that  a  complete  picture?  You  see  that  it  is.  Now  read  this  sen- 
tence: "Robert  has  a  slate  and  a  pencil."  Here  you  note  that 
Robert  has  two  things,  so  the  sentence  is  not  complete  when  we 
come  to  the  word  "slate."  Although  we  have  a  clear  picture,  yet 
we  have  not  the  whole  picture.  How  do  we  know  this?  In  the 
first  sentence  there  was  a  period  after  "slate,"  but  in  the  second 
sentence  there  was  none,  and  because  there  wasn't,  we  kept  on  read- 
ing and  found  there  was  another  group  of  words  giving  us  the  pic- 
ture of  something  else  Robert  had.  Now  this  teaches  us  that  if  we 
want  to  read  just  as  we  speak,  we  must  be  careful  to  get  not  only 
one  picture  or  two,  but  all  the  pictures  in  the  sentence. 

Let  me  show  you  how  we  often  make  mistakes  in  our  reading 
because  we  don't  pay  attention  to  what  I  have  just  shown  you. 
Suppose  we  have  this  sentence:  "I  saw  a  cat,  and  a  mouse,  and  a 
rat."  Now,  some  pupils  are  careless  and  they  read,  "I  saw  a  cat," 
just  as  if  that  were  the  whole  sentence.  Then  they  look  a  little 
further  and  see  the  next  group,  "and  a  mouse,"  and  they  read 
that.  Then  they  see  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  "and  a  rat,"  and  they 
read  that.    But  we  know  that  is  not  the  way  to  read.    We  must 


SUCCESSION  OF  IDEAS  137 

first  read  the  whole  sentence  silently  until  we  get  the  picture  in 
each  group,  and  then  we  shall  be  sure  to  read  the  sentence  just  as 
one  of  us  would  speak  it  if  he  really  saw  the  cat,  the  rat,  and  the 
mouse,  at  the  same  time. 

Here  is  a  very  good  example  for  you  to  study.  Read  it  through 
slowly  and  carefully,  and  do  not  try  to  read  it  aloud  until  you  see 
clearly  the  picture  in  each  group.  If  you  do  as  I  ask,  you  will  get 
a  complete  picture  of  the  way  in  which  the  young  soldier  prepares 
to  go  out  to  battle : 

But  when  the  gray  dawn  stole  into  his  tent, 
He  rose,  and  clad  himself,  and  girt  his  sword, 
And  took  his  horseman's  cloak,  and  left  his  tent. 

Can  you  not  see  the  young  warrior  rising  from  his  couch,  dress- 
ing himself,  girding  on  his  sword,  and  so  forth?  If  you  can,  then 
I  am  sure  you  will  be  able  to  make  others  see  it  as  a  complete 
picture,  without  breaking  it  up  into  many  little  pieces,  just  as  we 
used  to  do  in  the  first  book.  You  see,  he  did  not  rise  and  stop ;  and 
then  dress  himself  and  stop ;  and  gird  his  sword  and  stop ;  but  one 
action  followed  the  other,  just  as  each  car  in  a  long,  moving  train, 
follows  another.  Each  car  is  like  a  group  of  words,  and  the  whole 
train  is  like  the  complete  sentence. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE    CEIS^TKAL   IDEA 


A  little  reflection  must  make  it  manifest  that  every  sen- 
tence, or  even  phrase,  has  a  central  idea.  When  this  idea  is 
brought  out  in  vocal  expression  it  is  by  means  of  some  form  of 
emphasis,  such  as  inflection  or  force  or  time,  and  so  forth. 
The  exact  form  of  the  manifestation  need  not  concern  us 
here. 

JSTow  that  the  pupils  have  been  trained  to  look  for  the 
thought,  the  average  sentence  will  take  care  of  itself  as  far  as 
the  leading  idea  is  concerned ;  but  it  must  be  admitted  that 
in  the  sentence  of  more  than  average  difficulty  we  find  much 
obscure  and  more  faulty  reading,  due,  no  doubt,  to  ignorance 
of  the  central  idea.  It  is  perhaps  not  wise  in  all  cases  to  teach 
this  step,  as  a  step,  to  pupils  under  eleven  years ;  but  when  it 
is  taught,  great  care  must  be  exercised  to  keep  the  class  from 
forming  the  habit  of  pounding  out  every  important  word.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  the  attention  of  teachers  should  be  directed  to 
the  great  importance  of  such  studies  as  are  included  in  the 
present  chapter.  Furthermore,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
step  may  be  undertaken  in  the  higher  grades  and  in  high 
schools  to  great  advantage. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  more  severe  test  of  the  student's 
apprehension  of  the  meaning  than  his  emphasis — ^using  that 
term  in  its  broadest  sense.  Determining  the  central  idea 
is  essentially  a  logical  process;  the  student  weighs  and 
determines  the  value  of  every  word,  and  by  a  process  of 
elimination  finally  fixes  upon  the  exact  thought  to  be  con- 
veyed. 

138 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  139 

Eules  for  emphasis  so  commonly  given  are,  comparatively, 
of  little  value.  If  the  student  has  the  thought,  his  emphasis 
may  be  trusted  to  take  care  of  itself;  where  he  has  not,  the 
rules  are  confusing  and  misleading.  Mr.  Alfred  Ayres  says 
facetiously,  but  truly,  ''There  is  only  one  rule  for  emphasis — 
Gumption." 

It  is  understood  that  emphasis  has  a  much  wider  meaning 
than  that  of  merely  making  a  word  stand  out  distinctly  by 
means  of  force ;  it  includes  any  manner  of  making  a  thought 
prominent.  What  we  are  here  studying  is  simply  that  form 
of  emphasis  which  is  manifested  by  inflection  or  force,  or 
both.  The  central  idea  in  colloquial  utterance  is  generally 
made  significant  through  force;  but  by  far  the  most  sugges- 
tive method,  when  occasion  requires,  is  through  inflection. 
Of  course,  these  two  are  very  often  combined  in  various  pro- 
portions. 

In  the  following  illustrations,  two  classes  of  examples  will 
be  noticed.  In  the  first,  the  central  ideas  are  indicated  by 
means  of  italics  and  capitals.  It  is  not  claimed  that  some 
other  interpretation  might  not  be  possible ;  but  that  suggested 
is  at  least  justifiable.  The  teacher  will  study  these  examples 
carefully  with  the  object  of  determining  the  reason  for  the 
marking.  In  the  second  list  of  illustrations,  the  teacher 
himself  will  determine  the  central  idea,  and  manifest  it 
through  his  rendition. 

By  following  this  plan,  the  teacher's  own  reading  will 
show  much  improvement,  and  he  will  probably  learn  better 
how  to  work  out  the  problem  with  his  classes. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  havp  no  recognized  sym- 
bols for  showing  shades  and  degrees  of  emphasis.  The 
teacher  will,  no  doubt,  be  able  to  determine  for  himself 
whether  the  element  of  force  or  that  of  inflection  predomi- 
nates. 


140  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

*  There  on  the  dais  sat  another  king 
Wearing  his  robes,  his  crown,  his  SIGNET-RING. 

— King  Robert  of  Sicily.    Longfellow. 

Note  that  "his"  and  "robes'*  are  of  about  equal  impor- 
tance, the  former  perhaps  weighing  a  little  heavier  than  the 
latter.  In  the  next  phrase  the  inflection  on  "his"  is  much 
narrower  than  on  the  first  "his,"  while  the  "crown"  becomes 
more  important.  Finally,  the  last  "his"  has  no  emphasis, 
while  the  climax  of  thought  and  emotion  is  reached  on 
"signet-ring." 

And  do  you  NOW  put  on  your  best  attire! 

And  do  you  now  cull  out  a  holiday? 

And  do  you  now  STREW  FLOWERS  in  HIS  way 

That  comes  in  triumph  over  Pompey's  blood? 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  i.,  Sc.  1. 

Note  the  climax:  "best  attire"  is  weaker  than  "holiday,* 
and  it  than  the  strewing  of  flowers.  Conversely,  the 
emphasis  on  "now"  diminishes  at  each  repetition.  The  con- 
text should  be  carefully  digested. 

I  rather  tell  thee  what  is  to  be  feared 
Than  what  I  fear, 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  i.,  Sc.  2. 

An  actor  (?)  was  once  heard  to  read  the  above  passage, 
putting  his  emphasis  on  "thee"  and  the  second  "I."  How 
illuminating ! 

If  'twere  done  when  'tis  done,  then  'twere  well 
It  were  done  quickly. 

— Macbeth,  Act  i.,  Sc.  7. 


*  The  sources  of  most  of  the  following*  excerpts  are  g-iven  in  order 
that  the  student  may  refer  to  the  context  when  necessary.  It  is  urged, 
however,  that,  since  the  extracts  are  taken  from  literature  quite  avail- 
able, the  teacher  refer  to  the  context  as  often  as  possible. 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  14-1 

The  above  is  a  fine  illustration  of  the  claim  that  the  stud? 
of  the  ** Central  Idea"  is  essentially  a  logical  process.  Any 
other  emphasis  is  puerile,  and  yet  every  other  emphasis  is 
heard  except  this.  Let  us  look  a  little  closer.  The  passage 
beginning  with  this  line  resolves  itself  into  this :  I  am  ham- 
pered with  doubts  and  fears ;  I  can  find  no  rest  by  day  or  night 
until  I  kill  the  king  or  resolve  to  abandon  the  attempt.  But 
if  I  can  be  assured  that  there  shall  be  no  after  consequences 
here,  I'll  risk  the  life  to  come.  Hence,  the  following  para- 
phrase is  the  equivalent  of  the  first  line :  If  it  [the  murder] 
were  out  of  people's  minds,  if  it  were  blotted  out  of  recollec- 
tion, consigned  to  oblivion,  when  it  is  committed  [when  I  do 
the  murder],  then  the  sooner  it  is  done  the  better  for  my  peace 
of  mind.  In  a  word,  if  it  is  all  over  when  it  is  committed^ 
*Hhen  'twere  well  it  were  done  quickly."  Many  purposely 
avoid  repeating  the  emphasis  on  ''done"  because  they  believe 
the  two  "done's"  are  identical  in  meaning.  Nothing  could  be 
farther  from  the  truth,  as  shown  above.  The  truth  is,  this 
line  is  one  of  those  grim  plays  upon  words  in  which  Shake- 
speare is  so  prolific.  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  when 
properly  read  the  sense  will  be  made  clear  by  keeping  in  mind 
the  paraphrase  just  given.  The  result  will  be  that  the  first 
"done"  will  be  read  with  a  very  decided  falling  inflection, 
and  the  second  with  a  rising  circumflex  inflection  (the  mind 
looking  forward  at  the  end  to  the  conclusion  of  the  sentence). 
Perhaps  to  the  sensitive  student  of  literature  there  is  another 
argument.  Shakespeare's  vocabulary  would  indeed  have  been 
very  limited  had  he  found  it  necessary  to  use  three  "done's" 
in  the  opening  line  of  a  most  important  soliloquy.  To  one 
who  is  alive  to  aesthetic  effects,  the  very  fact  that  Shakespeare 
does  use  them  suggests  a  more  careful  analysis,  and  one  soon 
discovers  the  cause.  The  play  on  the  words  makes  the  salient 
idea  more  striking. 


142  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  flood  upon  flood  hurries  on  never  ending ;  and  it 
never  will  rest  nor  from  travail  be  free. 

—The  Diver,    Schiller-Lytton. 

Macbeth.    I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man ; 
Who  dares  do  more  is  none. 

Lady  Macbeth.  What  heast  was't  then 

That  made  you  break  this  enterprise  to  me? 
When  you  durst  do  it,  then  you  were  a  man, 
And,  to  be  more  than  what  you  were,  you  would 
Be  so  much  more  the  man.     Nor  time  nor  place 
Did  then  adhere,  and  yet  you  would  make  both, 
They  have  made  themselves,  and  that  their  fitness  now 
Does  i^nmake  you. 

— Macbeth,  Act  i.,  Sc.  7. 

...  it  becomes 
The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  CROWN. 

I  — The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  iv.,  Sc.  1. 

Why  is  "better"  not  the  most  significant  word? 

Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime. 

— Psalm  of  Life.    Longfellow. 

Why  not  emphasize  "we"? 

.  .  .  perchance  to  dream;  ay,  there's  the  rub! 
For  in  that  sleep  of  death  what  dreams  may  come. 

— Hamlet,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  1. 

"What"  is  equivalent  to  what  horriUe  or  awful, 

Cassius.     I  may  do  that  I  shall  be  sorry  for. 

Brutus.      You  have  done  that  you  should  be  sorry  for. 

-^Julius  Caesar,  Act  iv. ,  Sc.  3. 
It  is  the  bright  day  that  brings  forth  the  adder, 
And  that  craves  wary  walking. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  1. 
And  since  the  quarrel 
Will  bear  no  color  for  the  thing  he  is. 
Fashion  it  thus ;  that  what  he  is,  augmented, 
Would  run  to  these  and  these  extremities.  —Ibid, 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  143 

This  reading  brings  out  most  clearly  the  rationale  of 
Brutus 's  attitude.      The  soliloquy  should  be  studied  in  its 

entirety. 

Give  me  that  man 
That  is  not  passion's  slave,  and  I  will  wear  him 
In  my  hearts  core,  ay,  in  my  heart  of  heart. 
As  I  do  thee. 

— Hamlet,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  2. 

This  example  is  used  in  Fulton  and  Trueblood's  Practical 
Elocution,     The  authors  state : 

It  has  been  a  question  with  the  actors  which  word  of  the  phrase 
heart  of  heart  should  receive  the  chief  emphasis,  some  claiming  the 
reading  should  be  ''heart  of  heart,"  others  "heart  of  heart,"  still 
others  "heart  of  heart. ^^  The  first  seems  to  us  the  preferable 
reading,  for  if  the  lines  read,  "I  will  wear  him  in  my  heart's  core, 
ay,  in  the  center  of  it,"  the  case  would  be  clear.  Here  "center" 
stands  in  the  place  of  the  first  "heart." 

She  looked  down  to  blush  and  she  looked  up  to  sigh, 
With  a  smile  on  her  lip  and  a  tear  in  her  eye. 

— Lochinvar.    Scott. 

There  are  those  who  argue  that  ''lip"  and  "eye"  should 
not  be  emphasized.  This  is  a  serious  error.  The  phrases 
"on  her  lip"  and  "in  her  eye"  are  elaborative,  and  hence  the 
emphasis  is  distributed  over  the  entire  phrase.  If  this  is 
wrong,  we  must  blame  the  writer  for  tautology.  But  litera- 
ture has  many  similar  examples.     Here  is  another: 

Bring  forth  the  best  robe,  and  put  it  on  him :  and  put  a  ring  on 
his  hand,  and  shoes  on  his  feet. — Luke  xv.  22. 

There  is  a  rule  telling  us  to  emphasize  words  in  antithesis. 
In  many  cases  we  do  so;  but  these  cases  would  emphasize 
themselves,  so  to  speak.  There  are,  however,  many  cases  of 
rhetorical  antithesis  where  it  interferes  with  the  sense  to 
emphasize  both  members  of  the  antithesis,  and  here  the  rule 


144  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

steps  in  to  lead  astray  the  pupil.      To  illustrate:  "I  am  going 
to  town  to-morrow,  but  you  need  not  go  until  the  day  after ^ 
Mr.  A.  Melville  Bell  has  put  this  very  clearly.     In  his 
Essays  and  Postscripts  on  Elocution^  he  says : 

The  emphasis  of  contrast  falls  necessarily  on  the  second  of  a 
contrasted  pair  of  words,  but  not  necessarily  on  the  first.  The  first 
word  is  emphatic  or  otherwise,  according  as  it  is  new,  or  implied 
in  preceding  thoughts ;  but  it  is  not  emphatic  in  virtue  of  subse- 
quent contrast.  A  purposed  anticipation  may  give  emphasis  to 
the  first  word,  but  such  anticipatory  emphasis  should  not  be  made 
habitual. 

If  the  bright  blood  that  fills  my  veins,  transmitted  free  from 
godlike  ancestry,  were  like  the  slimy  ooze  which  stagnates  in  your 
arteries,  I  had  remained  at  home. 

Is  it  not  clear  that  the  anticipatory  emphasis  on  **my"  is 
not  only  unnecessary,  but  would,  if  given,  weaken  the  force  of 
the  succeeding  phrase? 

I  have  nothing  more  to  say,  but  the  honorable  gentleman  will  no 
doubt  speak  for  hours. 

What  could  I  do  less;  what  could  he  do  more? 

Messala.     It  is  but  change,  Titinius ;  for  Octavius 
Is  overthrown  by  noble  Brutus'  power, 
As  Cassius'  legions  are  by  Antony. 

Titinius.    These  tidings  will  well  comfort  Cassius. 

Messala.    Is  not  that  he  that  lies  upon  the  ground? 

Titinius.     He  lies  not  like  the  living.     Oh  my  heart ! 

Messala.    Is  not  that  he? 

Titinius.  No,  this  was  he,  Messala, 

But  Cassius  is  no  more, — O  setting  sun! 
As  in  thy  red  rays  thou  dost  sink  to  night, 
So  in  his  red  blood  Cassius'  day  is  set ; 
The  sun  of  Rome  is  set  I    Our  day  is  gone ; 
Clouds,  dev/s,  and  dangers  come ;  our  deeds  are  done ! 
Mistrust  of  my  success  hath  done  this  deed. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  v.,  Sc.  3. 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  145 

""It  is  evident  that  the  speakers  have  been  conversing  about 
the  two  parts  of  the  battle,  and  Titinius  has  told  his  friend 
that  Cassius  has  been  overthrown.  To  this  Messala  replies, 
comfortingly.  Affairs  are  balanced,  then,  etc.  The  entire 
extract  needs  and  will  amply  repay  most  critical  study.  It 
would  be  hard  to  find  one  containing  more  difficulties. 

Bassanio.     This  is  no  answer,  thou  unfeeling  man, 
To  excuse  the  current  of  thy  cruelty. 

Shylock.     I  am  not  bound  to  please  thee  with  my  answer. 
Bassanio.     Do  all  men  kill  the  things  they  do  not  love? 
Shylock.     Hates  any  man  the  thing  he  would  not  kill? 
Bassanio.     Every  offense  is  not  a  hate  at  first. 
Shylock.     What!    wouldst   thou  have  a    serpent   sting  thee 
twice? 

— Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  iv.,  Sc.  1. 

Duncan.    Go,  pronounce  his  present*  death, 
And  with  his  former  title  greet  Macbeth. 
Eoss.     I'll  see  it  done. 
Duncan.     What  he  hath  lost,  noble  Macbeth  hath  won. 

—Macbeth,  Act  i.,  Sc.  2. 

Thou  shalt  get  kings,  though  thou  be  none. 

—Macbeth,  Act  i.,  Sc.  3. 

Macbeth.    The  thane  of  Cawdor  Uves :  why  do  you  dress  me 
In  borrow' d  robes? 

Angus.    Who  was  the  thane,  lives  yet. 

—Ibid. 

LiGARius.     What's  to  do? 

Brutus.     A  piece  of  work  that  will  make  sick  men  whole. 
LIGARIUS.     But  are  not  some  whole  that  we  must  make  sick? 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  1. 

When  beggars  die,  there  are  no  comets  seen ; 

The  heavens  themselves  blaze  forth  the  death  of  princes. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  2. 

♦I.  e.,  instant. 


146  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Brutus.    He  hath  the  falling  sickness. 
Cassius.     No,  Caesar  hath  it  not ;  but  you  and  I, 
And  honest  Casca,  we  have  the  falling  sickness. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  1.,  Sc.  2. 
Romans  now 
Have  thews  and  limbs  like  to  their  ancestors, 
But,  woe  the  while !  our  fathers'  minds  are  dead. 
And  we  are  govern' d  with  our  mothers'  spirits. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  i.,  Sc.  3. 
That  you  do  love  me,  I  am  nothing  jealous; 
What  you  would  work  me  to,  I  have  some  aim ; 
How  I  have  thought  of  this,  and  of  these  times, 
I  shall  recount  hereafter ;  for  this  present,  * 

I  would  not,  so  with  love  I  might  entreat  you, 
Be  any  further  mov'd.     What  you  have  said, 
I  will  consider;  what  you  have  to  say,"^ 
I  will  with  patience  hear,  and  find  a  time 
Both  meet  to  hear,  and  answer  such  high  things. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  i.,  Sc.  2. 

Cowards  die  many  times  before  their  deaths ; 
The  valiant  never  taste  of  death  but  once. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  ii.,  Sc  2. 
Flavius.    Thou  art  a  cobbler,  art  thou? 
Citizen.      Truly,  sir,  all  that  I  live  by  is  with  the  awl. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  i.,  Sc.  1. 
Sir  Peter.    Very  well,  ma'am,  very  well !    So  a  husband  is  to 
have  no  influence — no  authority ! 

Lady  Teazle.  Authority?  No,  to  be  sure!  If  you  wanted 
authority  over  me,  you  should  have  adopted  me,  and  not  married 
me;  I  am  sure  you  were  old  enough! — The  School  for  Scandal. 
Sheridan. 

We  live  in  deeds,  not  years ;  in  thought,  not  breath ; 
In  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  a  dial ; 
We  should  count  time  by  heart-throbs.     He  most  lives, 
Who  thinks  most,  feels  the  noblest,  acts  the  best. 

—Festus.    Bailey. 

I  must  be  cruel,  only  to  be  kind ; 

Thus  bad  begins,  and  worse  remains  behind. 


THE  CENTRAL  IDEA  147 

Our  new  heraldry  is — hands,  not  hearts. 

He  jests  at  scars  that  never  felt  a  wound. 

Friendship  was  in  their  looks,  but  in  their  hearts  there  was 
hatred. 

Oh  I  the  blood  more  stirs 

To  rouse  a  lion  than  to  start  a  hare. 

You  will  find  it  less  easy  to  uproot  faults  than  choke  them  by 
gaining  virtues. 

A  maiden's  wrath  has  two  eyes — one  blind,  the  other  keener 
than  a  falcon's. 

The  storm  that  rends  the  oak  uproots  the  flower. 

But  break,  my  heart,  for  I  must  hold  my  tongue. 

Suggestions  for  a  class  lesson  follow : 

Let  us  look  at  the  following  sentence:  *'I  heard  William  say 
it."  Can  you  read  that  sentence  now?  I  should  say  you  could 
not,  and  my  reason  is,  that  you  are  not  quite  sure  of  its  meaning. 
Let  us  see  what  that  meaning  is. 

One  person  might  mean  that  he  had  heard  William  say  it,  but  that 
ycm  had  not.  How  would  you  read  the  sentence  then?  Another 
person  might  mean,  "I  am  sure  William  said  it,  for  I  was  there  to 
hear  him."  How  would  you  express  that?  Again,  a  third  person 
might  mean  that  he  was  sure  George  or  John  had  not  said  it, 
but  William.    How  would  you  read  that? 

We  learn  from  this  another  reason  why  we  must  use  great  care 
in  preparing  our  reading  lesson.  You  see,  if  we  do  not,  we  shall 
not  stop  to  consider  just  what  the  sentence  means,  and  then  in 
reading  we  shall  not  express  the  author's  meaning.  Let  us  try  a 
few  more  examples.  In  each  make  up  your  mind  just  what  you 
want  to  say,  and  then  say  it  as  if  you  meant  it. 

Example  1. — **I  like  geography  better  than  I  do  history." 
Now,  if  you  have  been  talking  to  a  friend  about  the  studies  you 
like  best,  and  he  has  just  said,  *'I  like  geography  as  well  as  I  do 
history,"  how  would  you  read  the  above  example?  Of  course,  you 
see  that  the  main  idea  in  your  mind  would  be  to  tell  him  that 
you  liked  geography  not  only  as  well  as,  but  better  than,  historJ^ 
Well  then,  now  you  may  read  the  example. 


148  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Example  2. — "I  should  rather  be  a  lawyer  than  a  doctor." 
Suppose  in  this  case  a  friend  has  said,  "My  father  wants  me  to  be  a 
doctor. ' '    How  would  you  then  read  the  sentence? 

Example  3. — "Queen  Victoria  has  reigned  longer  than  any 
other  monarch  who  ever  sat  upon  the  English  throne. ' '  Suppose 
you  are  telling  this  to  your  classmates,  and  that  you  have  not  been 
talking  about  Queen  Victoria  before,  but  you  want  only  to  give 
them  a  piece  of  information. 

Let  us  remember,  then,  that  every  sentence  has  a  principal,  or, 
as  we  sometimes  say,  a  central  idea.  We  need  be  extremely  care- 
ful to  get  that  central  idea,  and  if  we  have  been,  we  notice  that 
certain  words  will  stand  out  very  prominently  in  our  reading.  This 
is  true  because  reading  is  just  like  speaking.  If  some  one  asks  you 
where  you  are  going,  and  you  are  going  to  school,  what  do  you 
think  of?  You  don't  think  of  each  word  of  your  answer;  you  think 
only  one  idea — school.  So  you  say,  "I  am  going  to  school,"  and  you 
make  the  word  "school"  very  prominent,  or  important.  "School" 
is  the  central  idea. 

Until  our  next  step  I  want  you  to  study  every  sentence  of  every 
reading  lesson,  bearing  in  mind  this  very  important  fact  regarding 
the  central  idea.  Every  sentence  has  such  a  central  idea,  and  until 
you  have  found  it  you  cannot  read  the  sentence. 

Very  few  directions  are  necessary  except  to  warn  the 
teacher  against  speaking  about  the  various  Icinds  of  emphasis. 
ISTo  matter  what  the  kind,  the  thought  will  find  its  natural 
channel  if  the  conditions  be  right.  It  is  true,  that  sometimes 
a  word  is  made  prominent  by  inflection  (rising,  falling,  cir- 
cumflex), sometimes  by  slower  time,  sometimes  by  force  alone. 
But  let  us  remember,  these  various  forms  are  the  results  of 
vai^ous  forms  of  thinking.  If  those  are  right,  correct  reading 
will  follow. 

It  is  further  worth  noting  that  the  best  authorities  use 
'* emphasis"  as  signifying  any  means  of  making  the  thought 
stand  out.  Hence,  the  teacher  is  urged  not  to  use  the  term 
'* emphasis"  at  all.  If  a  pupil  err,  tell  him  he  has  not  given 
you  the  central,  or  leading,  idea. 


CHAPTER    IX 


SUBORDIKATIOK 


The  analysis  for  determining  the  central  idea  must  have 
led  the  student  to  discern  subordinate  ideas.  As  a  rule,  the 
expression  of  these  will  not  be  difficult,  but  there  are  certain 
phases  of  subordination  that  require  special  study.  We  have 
noted  that  in  our  desire  to  impress  the  leading  thought  upon 
another  we  have  used  significant  inflection,  or  force  or  time. 
It  must  follow  then  that  the  relatively  unimportant  words 
will  be  read  in  a  manner  less  striking.  In  the  following 
speech  of  Portia,  observe  how  naturally  we  slight  the  rela- 
tively unimportant  ideas : 

If  to  do  were  as  easy  as  to  know  what  were  good  to  do,  chapels 
had  been  churches,  and  poor  men's  cottages  princes'  palaces. 
It  is  a  good  divine  that  follows  his  own  instructions :  I  can  easier 
teach  twenty  what  were  good  to  be  done,  than  to  be  one  of  the 
twenty  to  follow  mine  own  teaching. 

There  will  be  degrees  of  subordination,  of  course:  the 
above  marking  is  meant  only  to  draw  attention  to  the  purely 
instinctive  process  as  a  result  of  which  the  vocal  modulations 
manifest  the  relative  degrees  of  thought  value. 

It  is  something  of  an  art  to  touch  lightly  upon  the  unim- 
portant and  yet  not  to  slur  it.  We  are  not  advocating  that  the 
teacher  should  at  any  length  dwell  upon  this,  though  it  is  well 
for  him  to  recognize  this  feature  of  expression.  There  are 
two  reasons  for  this:  first,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  reading 
there  is  a  tendency  to  overemphasize;  second,  in  the  later 

149 


150  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

stages,  tlie  unimportant  words  are  hurried,  with  the  result 
that  the  reading  becomes  indistinct. 

As  there  are  slighted  words  in  every  phrase,  so  there  are 
slighted  phrases  and  clauses  in  many  sentences.  We  are  all 
acquainted  with  the  time-honored  advice  concerning  the 
manner  in  which  one  should  read  words  in  parentheses: 
"Lower  the  voice  and  read  faster."  It  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  the  average  parenthetical  thought  is  expressed  in  that 
way,  but  there  are  many  examples  in  which  the  injunction  will 
not  apply.  Whether  the  key  will  be  raised  or  lowered,  and 
whether  the  time  will  be  accelerated  or  retarded,  will  depend 
entirely  upon  the  mental  attitude  of  the  reader.  To  illus- 
trate: ''The  battle  of  Waterloo, — the  most  important  battle 
of  the  nineteenth  century, — ended  the  career  of  NTapoleon." 
If  one  has  been  speaking  of  the  great  importance  of  this 
battle,  and  takes  for  granted  that  his  audience  recognizes  this 
importance,  he  will  probably  lower  the  key  in  the  subordinate 
sentence,  and  read  it  faster;  but  otherwise  he  would  read 
it  more  slowly  (as  a  result  of  the  importance  of  the 
thought),  even  if  he  did  not  raise  the  key.  This  leads  us  to 
the  conclusion  that  a  phrase  or  clause  may  be  grammatically 
subordinate  and  yet  of  the  greatest  importance.  I  The  degi^ee 
of  importance  determines  how  it  shall  be  read,  and  not  arbi- 
trary rules.  The  main  result  to  be  obtained  in  this  step  is  the 
training  of  the  student's  mind  in  apprehending  thought- 
modulation  ;  to  enable  him  to  weigh  the  thought  in  order  that 
he  may  perceive  more  clearly  the  relative  values  of  the  various 
phrases.  This  perception  leads  in  expression  to  that  most 
desirable  phase  of  utterance — variety. 

A  few  simple  illustrations  are  added  as  examples  of  what 
may  be  used  for  class  drill.  The  more  difficult  illustrations 
may  be  used  for  advanced  classes,  and  for  practice  by  the 
teacher  himself: 


SUBORDINATION  161 

And  children,  coming  home  from  school. 
Look  in  at  the  open  door ; 

And,  with  his  hard,  rough  hand,  he  wipes 
A  tear  out  of  his  eyes. 

However,  as  the  sun  baked  these  two  very  dry  and  hard,  I  lifted 
them  very  gently,  and  set  them  down  again  in  two  great  wicker 
baskets,  which  I  had  made  on  purpose  for  them,  that  they  might 
not  break;  and,  as  between  the  pot  and  the  basket  there  was  a 
little  room  to  spare,  I  stuffed  it  full  of  the  rice  and  barley  straw ; 
and  these  two  pots,  being  to  stand  always  dry,  I  thought  would 
hold  my  dry  corn,  and  perhaps  the  meal,  when  the  corn  was  bruised. 

Though  I  succeeded  so  poorly  in  my  design  for  large  pots,  yet  I 
made  several  smaller  things  with  better  success,  such  as  little  round 
pots,  flat  dishes,  pitchers,  and  pipkins,  and  anything  my  hand 
turned  to ;  and  the  heat  of  the  sun  baked  them  very  hard. 

Art  is  long,  and  Time  is  fleeting. 
And  our  hearts,  though  stout  and  brave. 

Still,  like  muffled  drums,  are  beating 
Funeral  marches  to  the  grave. 

Then  it  was  that  Jo,  living  in  the  darkened  room,  with  that 
suffering  little  sister  always  before  her  eyes,  and  that  pathetic 
voice  sounding  in  her  ears,  learned  to  see  the  beauty  and  sweetness 
of  Beth' s  nature,  to  feel  how  deep  and  tender  a  place  she  filled  in 
all  hearts,  and  to  acknowledge  the  worth  of  Beth's  unselfish  ambi- 
tion to  live  for  others,  and  make  home  happy  by  the  exercise  of 
those  simple  virtues  which  all  may  possess,  and  which  all  should 
love  and  value  more  than  talent,  wealth,  or  beauty.* 

It  was  past  two  o'clock  when  Jo,  who  stood  at  the  window  think- 
ing how  dreary  the  world  looked  in  its  winding-sheet  of  snow,  heard 
a  movement  by  the  bed,  and,  turning  quickly,  saw  Meg  kneeling 
before  their  mother's  easy-chair,  with  her  face  hidden. 

In  what  school  did  the  worthies  of  our  land — the  Washingtons, 
Henrys,  Franklins,  Rutledges — learn  those  principles  of  civil 
liberty? 

*A  good  example  to  illustrate  succession  of  ideas. 


152  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Next  to  the  worship  of  the  Father  of  us  all— the  deepest  and 
grandest  of  human  emotions — is  the  love  of  the  land  that  gave  us 
birth. 

I  am  not — I  need  scarcely  say  it — the  panegyrist  of  England. 

I  have  returned, — not,  as  the  right  honorable  member  has  said, 
to  raise  a  storm, — I  have  returned  to  discharge  an  honorable  debt  of 
gratitude  to  my  country. 

May  that  God  (I  do  not  take  his  name  in  vain),  may  that  God 
forbid  it. 

One  day — shall  I  forget  it  ever?— ^c  were  present — I  had  fought 
long  and  well. 

I  was  about  to  slay  him,  when  a  few  hurried  words — rather  a 
welcome  to  death  than  a  plea  for  life — told  me  he  was  a  Thracian. 

One  raw  morning  in  spring — it  will  be  eighty  years  the  19th  of 
this  month — Hancock  and  Adams  were  both  at  Lexington. 

And  are  we  to  speak  and  act  like  men  who  have  sustained  no 
wrong?    We !    Six  millions  of — what  shall  I  say? — citizens? 

Among  the  exploits  of  marvelous  and  almost  legendary  valor 
performed  by  that  great  English  chieftain — who  has  been  laid  aside 
uncoroneted,  and  almost  unhonored  because  he  would  promote  and 
distinguish  the  men  of  work  in  preference  to  the  men  of  idleness — 
among  his  achievements  not  the  least  wondrous  was  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  robber  tribes  of  the  Cutchee  Hills  in  the  north  of 
Scinde. 

But  if  there  is  one  man  here — I  am  speaking  not  of  shapes  and 
forms,  but  of  feelings — if  there  is  one  here  that  feels  as  men  were 
wont  to  feel,  he  will  draw  the  sword. 

And  you — you,  who  are  eight  millions  strong — you,  who  boast  at 
every  meeting  that  this  island  is  the  finest  which  the  sun  looks 
down  upon — you,  who  have  no  threatening  sea  to  stem,  no  avalanche 
to  dread — you,  who  say  that  you  could  shield  along  your  coast  a 
thousand  sail,  and  be  the  princes  of  a  mighty  commerce — you,  who 
by  the  magic  of  an  honest  hand,  beneath  each  summer  sky,  might 
cull  a  plenteous  harvest  from  your  soil,  and  with  the  sickle  strike 
away  the  scythe  of  death — you,  who  have  no  vulgar  history  to  read 


SUBORDINATION  153 

— you,  who  can  trace,  from  field  to  field,  the  evidences  of  civiliza- 
tion older  than  the  Conquest — the  relics  of  a  religion  far  more 
ancient  than  the  Gospel — you,  who  have  thus  been  blessed,  thus 
been  gifted,  thus  been  prompted  to  what  is  wise  and  generous  and 
great— you  will  make  no  effort — you  will  perish  by  the  thousand, 
and  the  finest  island  that  the  sun  looks  down  upon,  amid  the 
jeers  and  hooting  of  the  world,  will  blacken  into  a  plague  spot,  a 
wilderness,  a  sepulcher. 

In  his  early  manhood,  at  the  bidding  of  conscience,  against  the 
advice  of  his  dearest  friends,  in  opposition  to  stern  paternal  com- 
mands, against  every  dictate  of  worldly  wisdom  and  human  pru- 
dence, in  spite  of  all  the  dazzling  temptations  of  ambition  so 
alluring  to  the  heart  of  a  young  man,  he  turned  away  from  the 
broad  fair  highway  to  wealth,  position,  and  distinction,  that  the 
hands  of  a  king  opened  before  him,  and,  casting  his  lot  with  the 
sect  weakest  and  most  unpopular  in  England,  through  paths  that 
were  tangled  with  trouble,  and  lined  with  pitiless  thorns  of 
persecution,  he  walked  into  honor  and  fame,  and  the  reverence  of 
the  world,  such  as  royalty  could  not  promise  and  could  not  give 
him. 

No  one  venerates  the  Peerage  more  than  I  do ;  but,  my  Lords,  I 
must  say  that  the  Peerage  solicited  me, — not  I  the  Peerage.  Nay, 
more, — I  can  say,  and  will  say,  that,  as  a  Peer  of  Parliament,  as 
Speaker  of  this  right  honorable  House,  as  keeper  of  the  great  seal, 
as  guardian  of  his  Majesty's  conscience,  as  Lord  High  Chancellor 
of  England, — nay,  even  in  that  character  alone  in  which  the 
noble  Duke  would  think  it  an  affront  to  be  considered,  but  which 
character  none  can  deny  me,  as  a  MAN, — I  am  at  this  moment  as 
respectable — I  beg  leave  to  add — I  am  as  much  respected, — as  the 
proudest  Peer  I  now  look  down  upon. 

Fresh  as  the  flower,  whose  modest  worth 
He  sang,  his  genius  "glinted"  forth. 
Rose  like  a  star  that  touching  earth, 

For  so  it  seems. 
Doth  glorify  its  humble  birth 

With  matchless  beams. 

The  piercing  eye,  the  thoughtful  brow, 
The  struggling  heart,  where  be  they  now? 


154  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Full  soon  the  aspirant  of  the  plow. 

The  prompt,  the  brave, 
Slept,  with  the  obscurest,  in  the  low 

And  silent  grave. 

True  friends  though  diversely  inclined ; 
But  heart  with  heart  and  mind  with  mind, 
Where  the  main  fibers  are  entwined, 

Through  Nature's  skill. 
May  even  by  contraries  be  joined 

More  closely  still. 

Sighing  I  turned  away ;  but  ere 
Night  fell,  I  heard,  or  seemed  to  hear. 
Music  that  sorrow  comes  not  near, 

A  ritual  hymn, 
Chanted  in  love  that  casts  out  fear 

By  Seraphim. 

Too  frail  to  keep  the  lofty  vow 

That  must  have  followed  when  his  brow 

Was  wreathed — *'The  Vision"  tells  us  how — 

With  holly  spray, 
He  faltered,  drifted  to  and  fro, 

And  passed  away. 

The  five  preceding  stanzas  are  from  Wordsworth's  poem, 
At  the  Grave  of  Burns, 

In  the  illustrations  that  follow,  the  student  will  note  three 
distinct  degrees  of  importance  of  thought;  in  other  words, 
there  is  the  main  idea,  its  modifier,  and  the  modifier  of  the 
modifier.  The  yocal  expression  of  these  illustrations  will  be 
affected  just  to  the  extent  that  the  student  appreciates  the 
value  of  the  different  phrases. 

At  Atri  in  Abruzzo,  a  small  town 
Of  ancient  Roman  date,  but  scant  renown. 
One  of  those  little  places  that  have  run 
Half  up  the  hill,  beneath  a  blazing  sun. 
And  then  sat  down  to  rest,  as  if  to  say, 


SUBORDINATION  156 

"I  climb  no  farther  upward,  come  what  may," 
The  Re  Giovanni,  now  unknown  to  fame, 
So  many  monarchs  since  have  borne  the  name. 
Had  a  great  bell  hung  in  the  market-place. 

It  is  my  purjwse,  therefore,  believing  that  there  are  certain 
points  of  superiority  in  modern  artists,  and  especially  in  one  or 
two  of  their  number,  which  have  not  yet  been  fully  understood, 
except  by  those  who  are  scarcely  in  a  position  admitting  the  declara- 
tion of  their  conviction,  to  institute  a  close  comparison  between 
the  great  works  of  ancient  and  modern  landscape  art. 

Many  students  who  find  no  difficulty  in  silently  read- 
ing such  extracts  as  the  above,  will  often  fail  in  their  vocal 
expression  because  of  the  fact  that  the  latter  is  more  deliber- 
ate ;  and  consequently  they  may  lose  the  trend  of  the  main 
thought  in  rendering  the  explanatory  and  parenthetical  por- 
tions. To  overcome  this  difiiculty,  they  are  advised  to  read 
the  sentence,  with  the  omission  of  all  but  the  most  essential 
idea ;  then  let  them  add  one  idea  after  another  to  the  main  idea, 
until  the  sentence  is  read  correctly  in  its  entirety.  In  the  last 
example  quoted,  the  main  idea  is,  "It  is  my  purpose  ...  to 
institute  a  close  comparison  between  the  great  works  of 
ancient  and  modern  landscape  art."  Read  this  three  or  four 
times,  until  the  idea  is  clearly  apprehended.  lN"ow  read  the 
sentence,  omitting  "and  especially  in  one  or  two  of  their  num- 
ber," until  this  larger  thought  is  gi^asped;  after  which  let  the 
sentence  be  read  as  a  whole. 

Following  the  usual  plan,  a  class  lesson  is  added : 

"When  I  was  in  Paris  (which  is  in  France),  I  saw  a  great  many 
pretty  things." 

Read  this  sentence  carefully  and  you  will  find  something  we  have 
not  had  before :  a  group  of  words  in  parenthesis. 

You  notice,  we  should  have  very  good  sense  without  this  group. 
Read  it:  *'When  I  was  in  Paris  I  saw  a  great  many  pretty  things." 

So  you  see,  the  words  "which  is  in  France"  are  not  so  impor- 


156  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

tant  as  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  You  might  say  they  were  thrown 
in  after  you  had  thought  of  the  other  idea. 

Now,  I  want  you  to  read  the  sentence  aloud,  leaving  out  the 
group,  * 'which  is  in  France."  After  you  have  done  this  five  or  six 
times,  then  read  the  whole  sentence,  keeping  in  mind  that  the 
words  in  parenthesis  are  not  very  important,  but  just  thrown  in  to 
let  people  know  that  you  mean  Paris  in  France,  and  not  some  other 
Paris. 

The  groups  that  are  thrown  in  are  not  always  put  in  parenthesis. 
But  that  does  not  make  any  difference  in  the  reading.  Here  are  a 
few  examples.  I  want  you  to  practice  on  them  just  as  you  did  on 
the  first  example  in  this  lesson. 

1.  '  'The  king  of  England,  who  was  a  very  brave  man,  won  sev- 
eral victories  over  the  French. ' ' 

2.  "The  largest  school  in  our  city,  which  is  Chicago,  has  more 
than  five  hundred  children  in  it. ' ' 

3.  "During  the  Christmas  vacation,  which  lasts  ten  days,  I  went 
to  see  my  grandmother. ' ' 

4  "Frank  did  all  his  mother  asked  him  to  do;  but  William, 
because  he  was  careless  and  disobedient,  gave  his  mother  and 
teacher  a  great  deal  of  trouble." 

This  last  example  makes  very  clear  what  we  have  been  studying 
in  this  lesson.  You  see  plainly  that  the  words,  "because  he  was 
careless  and  disobedient,"  are  put  in  simply  to  explain  why 
William  gave  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 

You  must  be  very  careful  about  this  kind  of  sentence,  because 
there  are  a  great  many  of  them  on  every  page,  and  you  will  be  sure 
to  miss  them  if  you  are  careless. 

The  teacher  should  ask  the  pupils  to  bring  in  other 
examples,  and  have  them  read  in  the  class.  He  should  also 
select  examples  from  the  reading  book. 


CHAPTEE   X 


VALUES 


This  feature  of  expression  is  one  of  the  most  vital.  It  has 
to  do  with  the  value  of  each  phrase  of  the  sentence  and  each 
phase  of  the  whole  selection.  With  every  change  of  thought 
and  emotion  comes  another  form  of  expression,  and  these  dif- 
ferent forms  we  may  call  Values.  We  apply  the  term  Tran- 
sition to  the  act  of  passing  from  one  shade  of  thought  or  feel- 
ing to  another.  All  transitions  are  not  necessarily  emotional, 
and  yet  those  most  significant  are  certainly  of  this  character. 
Let  us  first  consider  a  few  examples  not  strongly  marked  with 
emotion : 

^^  Three  quarters  round  your  partners  swingP^ 
''Across  the  set!''    The  rafters  ring, 
The  girls  and  boys  have  taken  wing, 

And  have  brought  their  roses  out ! 
'Tis  ''Forward  sixP'  with  rustic  grace, 
Ah,  rarer  far  than — "Stmng  toplaceP'' 
Than  golden  clouds  of  old  point  lace. 

They  bring  the  dance  about. 

In  the  foregoing  we  have  a  picture  of  the  country  dance. 
We  hear  the  figures  called  out  by  the  old  fiddler,  and  see  the 
ever -varying  changes  of  The  Money  Music,  Study  the 
lines  so  as  to  be  able  to  bring  out  the  calls  clearly,  noting 
the  two  distinct  calls  at  the  opening,  and  the  abrupt  break  in 
the  sixth  line. ' 

The  next  extract  presents  a  wife  confiding  to  a  friend  the 
story  of  her  courtship.     Her  husband  is  a  true  knight,  and 

157 


158  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

would  perhaps  resent  it  to  have  even  his  bravery  form  the 
subject  of  conversation.  The  story  has  reached  its  conclusion 
when  the  speaker  says : 

Our  elder  boy  has  got  the  clear 

Great  brow ;  tho'  when  his  brother's  black 

Full  eyes  show  scorn,  it — 

and  she  is  probably  about  to  add  some  such  statement  as,  *'It 
behooves  one  to  look  out, "  when  suddenly  the  husband  appears 
on  the  scene.  With  a  woman's  ready  wit,  she  breaks  off  the 
sentence  abruptly,  saying : 

Gismond  here? 
And  have  you  brought  my  tercel  back? 
I  was  just  telling  Adela 
How  many  birds  it  struck  since  May. 

We  might  put  into  words  what  passes  through  her 
b!i)ind.  She  is  about  to  add  something  further  concerning 
the  eyes  of  her  boy,  when  she  hears  the  sound  of  feet  along 
the  walk.  Expecting  her  husband,  the  concluding  words  of 
her  sentence  pass  from  her  mind  as  she  turns  to  see  the  vis- 
itor. It  is  Gismond.  He  must  not  know  that  she  has  been 
speaking  of  him.  The  tercel  in  his  hand  gives  her  the  oppor- 
tunity of  opening  the  conversation,  which  she  is  quick  to  do, 
adroitly  pretending  that  it  was  of  that  very  tercel  she  and  her 
friend  had  been  conversing  before  his  arrival. 

One  more  illustration  of  this  kind  will  suffice.  A  tender, 
loving  woman  is  talking  to  her  husband.  He  is  a  learned 
poet,  and  perhaps  just  a  trifle  of  a  pedant.  He  is  most  mi- 
nute and  exact  in  all  he  does,  ever  losing  sight  of  the  spirit  in 
the  letter.  The  wife  is  the  true  poet,  caring  nothing  for  the 
archaeology  and  philology  and  the  geography,  but  quick  to 
perceive  the  inner  meaning  of  the  poetic.     He  has  told  her  a 


VALUES  159 

story  in  the  past,  and  she  is  going  now  to  tell  it  back  to  him 
with  a  new  moral. 

Here  is  the  first  stanza: 

What  a  pretty  tale  you  told  me 

Once  upon  a  time 
— Said  you  found  me  somewhere  (scold  me!) 

Was  it  prose  or  was  it  rhyme, 
Greek  or  Latin? 

When  the  woman  comes  to  ''somewhere,"  she  finds  she 
has  forgotten  the  source  of  the  original  story.  That  means  so 
much  to  him !  It  is  so  important !  With  a  quizzical  look, 
she  pretends  to  rack  her  brains  for  the  missing  information, 
knowing  all  the  time  she  will  not  find  it,  and  knowing  equally 
well  that  it  makes  no  difference  in  the  story.  Then,  with  a 
coy  expression  and  a  look  of  mock  humility  on  her  face,  she 
lets  fall  her  eyes,  meekly  acknowledging  her  awful  guilt, 
and  stands  prepared  to  accept  her  just  punishment,  saying. 
Scold  me!  I  deserve  it.  I  have  sinned;  my  punishment  is  just. 

Many  students  find  it  no  easy  task  to  make  these  transi- 
tions naturally.  Some  do  not  make  them  at  all,  but  run  the 
two  phases  of  thought  or  emotion  together.  Others  anticipate 
the  coming  idea,  and  hurry  the  last  two  or  three  words  before 
the  break.  The  proper  training  is  to  write  or  fhink  out  the 
incomplete  sentence^  then  let  it  more  or  less  quickly  vanish 
from  the  mind  as  the  new  conception  grows  clearer,  without 
betraying  the  fact  that  one  is  conscious  of  a  coming  inter- 
ruption. For  instance,  in  the  second  example,  one  must  read 
up  to  and  through  "it"  without  the  slightest  suggestion  of 
the  coming  of  Gismond,  and  even  think  the  conclusion  of  the 
sentence.  Then  hear  or  suddenly  see  Gismond  just  as  the 
word  "it"  falls  from  the  lips,  and  dismissing  from  the  mind 
the  former  idea,  conclude  with  the  joyous,  wifely  welcome  and 
question. 


160  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

It  might  be  proper  to  remark  here  that  the  same  principle 
applies  to  the  reading  of  dialogue.  Except  in  rare  cases  the 
reader  should  not  in  any  way  anticipate  the  speech  of  one 
character  while  rendering  the  words  of  another. 

For  those  who  do  not  intend  to  become  readers,  but  who 
would  be  preachers  or  lawyers,  the  practice  here  recommended 
will  prove  of  great  value.  Too  many  speakers,  in  their  excite- 
ment on  the  one  hand  and  in  their  spiritlessness  on  the  other, 
glide  along  line  after  line  in  one  monotonous  drift.  A  study 
of  these  exercises  will  teach  the  necessity  of  transitions,  and 
train  in  the  control  of  the  mental  action  in  this  regard, — a 
control  antecedent  to  that  most  important  requisite,  variety. 
After  almost  every  paragraph  or  stanza  there  is  more  or  less  of 
change  in  the  thought,  and  the  apprehension  of  this  change 
will  be  sufficient  to  modulate  the  vocal  expression. 

Even  where  there  is  no  abrupt  change  in  the  flow  of  ideas, 
there  is  often  a  gradual  transition  from  one  emotion  to 
another,  and  these  transitions  may  occur  several  times  within 
one  paragraph.  Take  the  following  excerpt  from  Webster's 
reply  to  Hayne.  It  is  one  paragraph ;  but  it  is  divided  into 
four  smaller  paragraphs,  each  of  which  is  a  marked  "phase" 
of  the  thinking.  Practice  in  the  analysis  of  selections  to 
determine  these  phases  is  the  best  and  only  rational  training  in 
transitions.  But  its  value  does  not  stop  here;  for  the  stu- 
dent not  only  makes  transitions,  but  is  led,  through  careful 
analysis,  to  discern  shades  of  meaning  and  emotion  he  might 
otherwise  overlook : 

Sir,  the  gentleman  inquires  why  he  was  made  the  object  of  a 
reply.  Why  was  he  singled  out?  If  an  attack  has  been  made  on 
the  East  he,  he  assures  us,  did  not  begin  it ;  it  was  made  by  the 
gentleman  from  Missouri. 

Sir,  I  answered  the  gentleman's  speech  because  I  happened  to 
hear  it,  and  because  I  chose  to  answer  that  speech  which,  if 
imanswered,  I  thought  most  likely  to  produce  injurious  impressions. 


VALUES  161 

I  did  not  stop  to  inquire  who  was  the  original  drawer  of  the 
bill.  I  found  a  responsible  endorser  before  me,  and  it  was  my  pur- 
pose to  hold  him  liable,  and  to  bring  him  to  his  just  responsibility 
without  delay. 

But,  sir,  this  interrogatory  of  the  honorable  member  was  only 
introductory  to  another.  He  proceeds  to  ask  whether  I  had  turned 
upon  him  in  this  debate  from  the  consciousness  that  I  should  find 
an  overmatch  if  I  ventured  on  a  contest  with  his  friend  from 
Missouri. 

Transitions  in  emotion  do  not  differ  in  principle  from 
those  we  have  been  considering.  The  student  must  pursue 
the  same  method  with  these  as  with  the  others,  expressing 
the  first  emotion  until  he  comes  to  the  break,  making 
then  an  elliptical  paraphrase,  and  then  presenting  the  new 
emotion.  An  excellent  model  is  the  following  speech  of  King 
Lear. 

The  aged  monarch  has,  in  a  fit  of  rage,  cast  adrift  his 
youngest  child,  and  his  eldest  has  turned  him  from  her  home. 
He  turns  in  despair  to  his  remaining  daughter,  assured  that 
he  will  here  receive  a  filial  welcome.  To  his  surprise,  she 
refuses  to  meet  him ;  says  she  is  sick  and  travel-weary ;  and 
his  amazed  feeling  finds  vent  in  an  uncontrolled  explosion  of 
passion : 

Lear.  Vengeance!  plague!  death!  confusion! — 
Fiery?  what  quality?  Why,  Gloucester,  Gloucester, 
I'd  speak  with  the  Duke  of  Cornwall  and  his  wife. 

Gloucester.    Well,  my  good  lord,  I  have  inform' d  them  so. 

Lear.     Inform' d  them!    Dost  thou  understand  me,  man? 

Gloucester.    Ay,  my  good  lord. 

Lear.    The  King  would  speak  with  Cornwall ;  the  dear  father 
Would  with  his  daughter  speak ;  commands  her  service : 
Are  they  inform' d  of  this? — My  breath  and  blood! 
Fiery?  the  fiery  Duke?    Tell  the  hot  Duke  that— 
No,  but  not  yet:  may  be  he  is  not  well: — 

— King  Lear,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  4. 


162  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

and  he  then  proceeds  to  find  excuses  for  her  action,  and  that 
of  her  husband,  the  Duke  of  CornwaU.  There  is  hardly  a 
more  pathetic  incident  in  a  most  pathetic  play  than  this,  in 
which  the  old  man,  past  his  eightieth  year,  after  holding  un- 
disputed sway  through  his  long  reign,  is  at  last  compelled  to 
temporize.  He  is  about  to  send  a  message  to  the  Duke,  the 
character  of  which  is  easily  judged  from  his  previous  language. 
If  that  message  is  sent,  Lear  will  be  alone  in  the  world.  But 
suddenly  his  fearful  position  flashes  upon  him.  The  threat 
dies  upon  his  lips,  gradually  blending  into  apology  and 
conciliation. 

EXAMPLES  OF  EMOTIONAL  TRANSITIONS. 

If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now. 
You  all  do  know  this  mantle :  I  remember 
The  first  time  ever  Caesar  put  it  on ; 
'Twas  on  a  summer's  evening,  in  his  tent, 
That  day  he  overcame  the  Nervii : 
Look,  in  this  place  ran  Cassius'  dagger  through. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  iii.,  Sc  2. 

He  spoke ;  but  Rustum  gazed,  and  gazed,  and  stood 
Speechless;  and  then  he  utter 'd  one  sharp  cry: 
"0  boy — thy  father!" — and  his  voice  choked  there. 
And  then  a  dark  cloud  pass'd  before  his  eyes, 
And  his  head  swam,  and  he  sank  down  to  earth. 

— Sohrab  and  Rustum.    M.  Arnold. 

"Ferood,  and  ye,  Persians  and  Tartars,  hear! 
Let  there  be  truce  between  the  hosts  to-day. 
But  choose  a  champion  from  the  Persian  lords 
To  fight  our  champion  Sohrab,  man  to  man." 

As  in  the  country,  on  a  morn  in  June, 
When  the  dew  glistens  on  the  pearled  ears, 
A  shiver  runs  through  the  deep  corn  for  joy — 
So,  when  they  heard  what  Peran-Wisa  said, 
A  thrill  through  all  the  Tartar  squadrons  ran 
Of  pride  and  hope  for  Sohrab,  whom  they  loved. 


VALUES  163 

But  as  a  troop  of  peddlers  from  Cabool, 
Cross  underneath  the  Indian  Caucasus, 
The  vast  sky-neighboring  mountain  of  milk  snow; 
Crossing  so  high,  that,  as  they  mount,  they  pass 
Long  flocks  of  traveling  birds  dead  on  the  snow, 
Choked  by  the  air,  and  scarce  can  they  themselves 
Slake  their  parch' d  throats  with  sugar' d  mulberries — 
In  single  file  they  move  and  stop  their  breath, 
For  fear  they  should  dislodge  the  o'erhanging  snows — 
So  the  pale  Persians  held  their  breath  with  fear. 

— Sohrab  and  Rustum.    M.  Arnold. 

Note  how,  after  the  words,  '*whom  they  loved,"  the 
atmosphere  changes  from  that  of  joy  to  that  of  dread  and  scorn 
— scorn  at  the  cowardice  of  the  Persians,  and  the  dread  that  the 
speaker  would  sympathetically  feel  as  he  recounted  the  deed. 

This  too  thou  know'st,  that  while  I  still  bear  on 

The  conquering  Tartar  ensigns  through  the  world, 

And  beat  the  Persians  back  on  every  field, 

I  seek  one  man,  one  man,  and  one  alone — 

Rustum,  my  father ;  who  I  hoped  should  greet, 

Should  one  day  greet,  upon  some  well-fought  field, 

His  not  unworthy,  not  inglorious  son. 

So  I  long  hoped,  but  him  I  never  find. 

Come  then,  hear  now,  and  grant  me  what  I  ask. 

Let  the  two  armies  rest  to-day ;  but  I 

Will  challenge  forth  the  bravest  Persian  lords 

To  meet  me  man  to  man ;  if  I  prevail, 

Rustum  will  surely  hear  it ;  if  I  fall — 

Old  man,  the  dead  need  no  one,  claim  no  kin. 

Dim  is  the  rumor  of  a  common  fight, 

Where  host  meets  host,  and  many  names  are  sunk ; 

But  of  a  single  combat  fame  speaks  clear. 

— Sohrab  and  Rustum.    M.  Arnold. 

.STUDIES  11^  "PHASES." 

This  extract  from  Tennyson's  Charge  of  the  Heavy  Brigade 
contains  five  distinct  phases,  or  strata,  ending  respectively 


164  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

with  the  words,  ''fight,"  "close,"  "then,"  "thousands,"  and 
"Brigade." 

The  trumpet,  the  gallop,  the  charge,  and  the  might  of  the  fight ! 
Thousands  of  horsemen  had  gather 'd  there  on  the  height, 
With  a  wing  push'd  out  to  the  left  and  a  wing  to  the  right, 
And  who  shall  escape  if  they  close?  but  he  dash'd  up  alone 
Thro'  the  great  gray  slope  of  men, 
Sway'd  his  saber,  and  held  his  own 
Like  an  Englishman,  there  and  then ; 
All  in  a  moment  follow' d  with  force 
Three  that  were  next  in  their  fiery  course. 
Wedged  themselves  in  between  horse  and  horse. 
Fought  for  their  lives  in  the  narrow  gap  they  had  made- 
Four  amid  thousands !  and  up  the  hill,  up  the  hill, 
Gallopt  the  gallant  three  hundred,  the  Heavy  Brigade. 

As  when  a  boar 
Or  lion  mid  the  hounds  and  huntsmen  stands, 
Fearfully  strong,  and  fierce  of  eye,  and  they 
In  square  array  assault  him,  and  their  hands 
Fling  many  a  javelin ; — yet  his  noble  heart 
Fears  not,  nor  does  he  fly,  although  at  last 
His  courage  cause  his  death ;  and  oft  he  turns. 
And  tries  their  ranks ;  and  where  he  makes  a  rush 
The  rank  gives  way ; — so  Hector  moved  and  turned 
Among  the  crowd,  and  bade  his  followers  cross 
The  trench.  __27^e  xnad^ 

Hector,  thou  almost  ever  chidest  me 

In  council,  even  when  I  judge  aright. 

I  know  it  ill  becomes  the  citizen 

To  speak  against  the  way  that  pleases  thee, 

In  war  or  council, — he  should  rather  seek 

To  strengthen  thy  authority ;  yet  now 

I  will  declare  what  seems  to  me  the  best : 

Let  us  not  combat  with  the  Greeks,  to  take 

Their  fleet;  for  this,  I  think,  will  be  the  end, — 

If  now  the  omen  we  have  seen  be  meant 

For  us  of  Troy  who  seek  to  cross  the  trench ; — 


VALUES  166 

This  eagle,  flying  high  upon  the  left, 
Between  the  hosts,  that  in  his  talons  bore 
A  monstrous  serpent,  bleeding,  yet  alive, 
Hath  dropped  it  mid  our  host  before  he  came 
To  his  dear  nest,  nor  brought  it  to  his  brood ; — 
So  we,  although  by  force  we  break  the  gates 
And  rampart,  and  although  the  Greeks  fall  back, 
Shall  not  as  happily  retrace  our  way ; 
For  many  a  Trojan  shall  we  leave  behind. 
Slain  by  the  weapons  of  the  Greeks,  who  stand 
And  fight  to  save  their  fleet.     Thus  will  the  seer. 
Skilled  in  the  lore  of  prodigies,  explain 
The  portent,  and  the  people  will  obey. 

—The  Biad. 

And  thus  King  Priam  supplicating  spake : — 
* 'Think  of  thy  father,  an  old  man  like  me. 
Godlike  Achilles !    On  the  dreary  verge 
Of  closing  life  he  stands,  and  even  now 
Haply  is  fiercely  pressed  by  those  who  dwell 
Around  him,  and  has  none  to  shield  his  age 
From  war  and  its  disasters.     Yet  his  heart 
Rejoices  when  he  hears  that  thou  dost  live. 
And  every  day  he  hopes  that  his  dear  son 
Will  come  again  from  Troy.     My  lot  is  hard. 
For  I  was  father  of  the  bravest  sons 
In  all  wide  Troy,  and  none  are  left  me  now. 
Fifty  were  with  me  when  the  men  of  Greece 
Arrived  upon  our  coast ;  nineteen  of  these 
Owned  the  same  mother,  and  the  rest  were  bom 
Within  my  palaces.     Remorseless  Mars 
Already  had  laid  lifeless  most  of  these. 
And  Hector,  whom  I  cherished  most,  whose  arm 
Defended  both  our  city  and  ourselves, 
Him  didst  thou  lately  slay  while  combating 
For  his  dear  country.     For  his  sake  I  come 
To  the  Greek  fieet,  and  to  redeem  his  corse 
I  bring  uncounted  ransom.     O  revere 
The  gods,  Achilles,  and  be  merciful. 
Calling  to  mind  thy  father !  happier  he 


166  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Than  I;  for  I  have  borne  what  no  man  else 

That  dwells  on  earth  could  bear, — have  laid  my  lips 

Upon  the  hand  of  him  who  slew  my  son." 

He  spake :  Achilles  sorrowfully  thought 

Of  his  own  father.     By  the  hand  he  took 

The  suppliant,  and  with  gentle  force  removed 

The  old  man  from  him.     Both  in  memory 

Of  those  they  loved  were  weeping.     The  old  king, 

With  many  tears,  and  rolling  in  the  dust 

Before  Achilles,  mourned  his  gallant  son. 

Achilles  sorrowed  for  his  father's  sake, 

And  then  bewailed  Patroclus,  and  the  sound 

Of  lamentation  filled  the  tent.     At  last 

Achilles,  when  he  felt  his  heart  relieved 

By  tears,  and  that  strong  grief  had  spent  its  force, 

Sprang  from  his  seat ;  then  lifting  by  the  hand 

The  aged  man,  and  pitying  his  white  head 

And  his  white  chin,  he  spake  these  winged  words : 

—The  Iliad. 

It  is  especially  in  the  reading  of  description  that  the  study 
of  values  will  prove  most  beneficial.  There  are  very  few  read- 
ers who  can  make  description  interesting,  and  their  failure  is 
in  most  cases  due  to  the  monotony  arising  from  their  inability 
to  perceive  and  make  palpable  the  different  values.  The 
reply  of  Achilles  to  Priam  becomes  most  interesting  reading 
when  values  are  carefully  observed. 

Great  have  thy  sufferings  been,  unhappy  king! 

How  couldst  thou  venture  to  approach  alone 

The  Grecian  fleet,  and  show  thyself  to  him 

Who  slew  so  many  of  thy  valiant  sons? 

An  iron  heart  is  thine.     But  seat  thyself, 

And  let  us,  though  afilicted  grievously, 

Allow  our  woes  to  sleep  awhile,  for  grief 

Indulged  can  bring  no  good.     The  gods  ordain 

The  lot  of  man  to  suffer,  while  themselves 

Are  free  from  care.     Beside  Jove's  threshold  stand 

Two  casks  of  gifts  for  man.     One  cask  contains 


VALUES  167 

The  evil,  one  the  good,  and  he  to  whom 

The  Thunderer  gives  them  mingled  sometimes  falls 

Into  misfortune,  and  is  sometimes  crowned 

With  blessings.     But  the  man  to  whom  he  gives 

The  evil  only  stands  a  mark  exposed 

To  wrong,  and,  chased  by  grim  calamity, 

Wanders  the  teeming  earth,  alike  unloved 

By  gods  and  man.     So  did  the  gods  bestow 

Munificent  gifts  on  Peleus  from  his  birth, 

For  eminent  was  he  among  mankind 

For  wealth  and  plenty ;  o'er  the  Myrmidons 

He  ruled,  and,  though  a  mortal,  he  was  given 

A  goddess  for  a  wife.     Yet  did  the  gods 

Add  evil  to  the  good,  for  not  to  him 

Was  born  a  family  of  kingly  sons 

Within  his  house,  successors  to  reign. 

One  short-lived  son  is  his,  nor  am  I  there 

To  cherish  him  in  his  old  age ;  but  here 

Do  I  remain,  far  from  my  native  land, 

In  Troy,  and  causing  grief  to  thee  and  tliine. 

Of  thee,  too,  aged  king,  they  speak,  as  one 

Whose  wealth  was  large  in  former  days,  when  all 

That  Lesbos,  seat  of  Macar,  owns  was  thine. 

And  all  in  Phrygia  and  the  shores  that  bound 

The  Hellespont ;  men  said  thou  didst  excel 

All  others  in  thy  riches  and  thy  sons. 

But  since  the  gods  have  brought  this  strife  on  thee 

War  and  perpetual  slaughter  of  brave  men 

Are  round  thy  city.     Yet  be  firm  of  heart, 

Nor  grieve  forever.     Sorrow  for  thy  son 

Will  profit  nought ;  it  cannot  bring  the  dead 

To  life  again,  and  while  thou  dost  afflict 

Thyself  for  him  fresh  woes  may  fall  on  thee. 

^The  Iliad. 

The  subject  may  be  presented  to  the  class  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of  the  following  lesson : 

Suppose  you  were  very  busy  studying  your  reading  lesson,  and 
you  were  just  about  to  read  aloud  a  sentence  like  this : 


168  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

There's  a  good  time  coming,  boys, 
A  good  time  comting ! 

But  when  you  came  to  the  second  "good,"  let  us  suppose  somebody 
knocks  at  the  door  and  you  say,  "Come  in. "  What  has  happened  in 
your  reading?  You  have  broken  off  one  thought  suddenly  and 
another  has  come  in  its  place.  Let  us  see  how  such  a  sentence 
would  look : 

There's  a  good  time  coming,  boys, 
A  good — Come  in. 

Now,  what  is  the  difference  between  this  sentence  and  those  we 
studied  in  our  last  lesson?  It  is  this :  In  the  former  lesson  the  new 
thought  that  was  thrown  in  was  really  a  part  of  the  principal 
thought ;  but  in  this  the  new  thought  has  no  connection  with  the 
principal  idea.  In  the  previous  lesson  the  group  that  was  thrown 
in  was  a  kind  of  explanation;  in  this  lesson,  the  first  picture  is 
driven  entirely  out  of  mind  by  the  second. 

Breaks  in  the  thought  are  of  many  kinds,  and  it  is  very  necessary 
that  you  should  be  on  the  look-out  for  them.  Here  is  an  example  of 
a  kind  you  will  find  quite  often : 

**Halt!"     The  dust-brown  ranks  stood  fast. 
**Fire!"  out  blazed  the  rifle-blast. 

The  words  "halt"  and  "fire"  are  commands  given  by  the 
general;  the  sentence  that  follows  each  of  these  words  tells  us 
what  happened  after  the  commands  were  given. 

Another  kind  of  break  is  found  in  those  selections  in  which 
there  are  two  or  more  persons  speaking.  As  in  this:  "Frank  said, 
'Will  you  go  to  school  with  me?'  and  his  brother  said,  *No,  I  don't 
like  it. '  'Not  like  school?'  replied  Frank,  who  was  very  much  sur- 
prised, 'I  would  rather  go  there  than  anywhere  I  know.'  "  You 
can  see  plainly  that  there  is  a  break  when  the  reader  changes  from 
one  person  to  another. 

The  last  kind  of  break  we  shall  speak  about  in  this  lesson  is  that 
which  occurs  between  the  stanzas  of  a  poem  or  between  the  para- 
graphs of  a  prose  selection.  I  need  not  give  any  examples  here,  for 
you  will  find  them  on  every  page  of  your  reader.  All  I  need  do  is 
tell  you  that  the  new  paragraph  or  the  new  stanza  generally  begins 


VALUES  169 

with  a  new  thought.     So  you  must  be  sure  to  get  that  new  thought, 
and  hold  it  well  in  mind,  before  you  try  to  express  it. 

In  closing  this  lesson  I  want  to  show  you  that  you  may  learn  how 
to  read  such  examples  as  we  have  had,  if  you  will  but  be  careful. 
You  must  be  sure  to  get  each  new  picture  before  you  utter  a  word. 
Take  the  first  example.  You  have  read  the  first  line,  "There's  a 
good  time  coming,  boys,"  and  you  are  just  about  to  repeat  it.  Now 
think  what  you  are  going  to  say,  and  just  as  you  come  to  the  word 
"good,"  imagine  you  hear  a  knocking,  and  say,  "Come  in."  If 
you  will  only  think  what  the  words  mean  and  see  the  picture, 
there  will  be  no  trouble  about  reading  the  example  well. 

A  few  examples  for  class  use  are  appended.  The  teacher 
may  easily  invent  suitable  contexts : 

My  servant-boy,  with  a  reserve  gun,  was  ten  or  twelve  yards  off 
— a  long  way  at  such  a  moment. 

It  would  make  the  reader  pity  me  to  learn  that,  after  having 
labored  hard,  I  could  not  make  above  two  large  earthen,  ugly  things 
(I  can  not  call  them  jars)  in  about  two  months'  labor. 

The  tear  will  start,  and  let  it  flow ; 
Thou  "poor  Inhabitant  below," 
At  this  dread  moment, — even  so — 

Might  we  together 
Have  sate  and  talked  where  gowans  blow, 

Or  on  wild  heather. 

In  the  above,  Wordsworth  laments  that  the  death  of  Burns 
should  have  deprived  them  of  the  joy  of  communion.  Kote 
the  force  of  the  semicolon  after  '^flow,"  and  the  pathos  of 
'*even  so."     The  following  lines  are  from  the  same  poem: 

Too  frail  to  keep  the  lofty  vow 

That  must  have  followed  when  his  brow 

Was  wreathed — "The  Vision"  tells  us  how — 

With  holly  spray. 
He  faltered,  drifted  to  and  fro, 

And  passed  away. 


170  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Now,  when  the  Hare  came  to  the  top  of  the  field,  the  Hedgehog 
cried  out,  * 'Hallo!  here  I  am.  Where  have  you  been  all  this 
while?"  But  the  Hare  was  out  of  his  wits,  and  cried  out,  *'Once 
more — turn  about,  and  away!"  "By  all  means,"  answered  the 
Hedgehog;  *'for  my  part,  as  often  as  you  please." 

Young  Harry  was  a  lusty  drover — 

And  who  so  stout  of  limb  as  he? 
His  cheeks  were  red  as  ruddy  clover; 

His  voice  was  like  the  voice  of  three. 
Old  Goody  Blake  was  old  and  poor; 

Ill-fed  she  was,  and  thinly  clad ; 
And  any  man  who  passed  her  door 

Might  see  how  poor  a  hut  she  had. 

There  is  a  change  of  feeling  in  almost  every  stanza  of  the 
following  poem.  If  the  pupils  can  grasp  its  meaning  it  will 
be  an  excellent  exercise  in  training  them  to  perceive  the 
relative  values.  It  may  be  well  to  delay  the  study  of  this 
selection  until  after  the  principle  of  the  next  two  chapters 
has  been  thoroughly  grasped  and  put  into  practice : 

On  Linden,  when  the  sun  was  low, 
All  bloodless  lay  th'  untrodden  snow. 
And  dark  as  winter  was  the  flow 
Of  Iser,  rolling  rapidly. 

But  Linden  saw  another  sight, 
When  the  drima  beat  at  dead  of  night, 
Commanding  fires  of  death  to  light 
The  darkness  of  her  scenery. 

By  torch  and  trumpet  fast  arrayed. 
Each  horseman  drew  his  battle-blade, 
And  furious  every  charger  neighed, 
To  join  the  dreadful  revelry. 

Then  shook  the  hills,  with  thunder  riven; 
Then  rushed  the  steed,  to  battle  driven ; 
And,  louder  than  the  bolts  of  heaven. 
Far  flashed  the  red  artillery. 


VALUES  171 

But  redder  yet  that  light  shall  glow 
On  Linden's  hills  of  stained  snow, 
And  bloodier  yet  the  torrent  flow 
Of  Iser,  rolling  rapidly. 

'Tis  morn,  but  scarce  yon  lurid  sun 
Can  pierce  the  war-clouds,  rolling  dun, 
Where  furious  Frank  and  fiery  Hun 
Shout  in  their  sulph'rous  canopy. 

The  combat  deepens.     On,  ye  brave. 
Who  rush  to  glory  or  the  grave ! 
Wave,  Munich !  all  thy  banners  wave. 
And  charge  with  all  thy  chivalry ! 

Few,  few  shall  part  where  many  meet ! 
The  snow  shall  be  their  winding-sheet, 
And  every  turf  beneath  their  feet 
Shall  be  a  soldier's  sepulcher. 

— Hohenlinden.    Campbell. 


CHAPTEK    XI 

EMOTION 

Teaching  children  to  read  with  feeling  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  tasks  falling  to  the  lot  of  the  teacher,  and  yet  it  is  one 
that  has,  if  successfully  accomplished,  far-reaching  results. 
For,  apart  from  the  legitimate  development  of  emotion,  it 
enlarges  their  sympathy  and  lays  the  foundation  for  a  genuine 
love  of  literature. 

We  must  confess  that  emotional  expression  is  rarely  found 
in  our  public  schools.  It  would  avail  little  to  discuss  the 
causes  of  this  condition  in  detail.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  try 
to  discover  a  remedy.  Emotion  in  reading  comes  largely 
through  the  imagination.  Unless  the  mind  conceives  the 
thought,  how  can  the  nerves  thrill  and  tingle?  It  is  for  this 
that  we  need  teachers  who  are  themselves  lovers  of  the  beauti- 
ful, sublime,  tender,  in  order  that  they  may  impart  their  ap- 
preciation and  feeling  to  their  classes.  Emotion  is  catching, 
and  so  is  the  absence  of  it!  Time,  time,  time,  is  here  the 
great  need.  It  takes  time  to  think ;  time  for  the  picture  to 
come  forth  in  its  fulness  out  of  subconsciousness.  Is  not 
imagination  the  basis  of  literary  interpretation,  of  historical 
study,  yes,  even  of  mathematics  and  science?  The  time  spent 
on  the  development  of  imagination  and  emotion  in  the 
reading  lesson  will  show  its  results  in  every  other  study. 

If,  then,  the  teacher  would  get  the  right  emotion,  he  must 
see  to  it  that  the  child  has  the  proper  and  adequate  stimulus. 
Appeal  to  his  everyday  experience  and  make  that  serve  as  an 
introduction  to  the  new  experience  of  the  poem. 

Let  us  suppose  we  are  speaking  to  the  children : 


EMOTION  173 

If  your  class  were  to  have  a  contest  with  another  class,  let  us  say- 
in  spelling,  and  your  class  were  to  come  out  victorious,  you  would, 
no  doubt,  feel  very  joyful  over  the  result.  Now,  let  us  suppose  that 
after  the  victory  one  of  the  members  of  the  class  should  get  up  on 
his  seat  and  wave  his  hand  above  his  head,  crying:  "Three  cheers 
for  our  class!"  Would  there  be  any  difference  between  the  way  in 
which  he  spoke  those  words  and  the  way  in  which  he  would  read 
the  same  words  if  they  came  in  a  sentence  like  this:  *'If  we  win  I 
shall  give  three  cheers  for  our  class"? 

Of  course,  you  will  see  at  once  that  there  would  be  a  great  deal 
of  difference.  In  the  first  place,  he  would  be  very  joyful,  and  per- 
haps excited,  and  this  joy  and  excitement  would  get  into  his  voice, 
and  he  would  call  out,  *  Three  cheers  for  our  class,"  with  a  great 
deal  of  feeling,  or  emotion ;  and  everybody  would  see  at  once  just 
how  exultant  he  was.  Now,  what  is  it  that  causes  that  feeling,  or 
emotion?  I  do  not  think  that  there  will  be  much  difficulty  in 
answering  this  question.  He  was  very  much  excited  before  the 
spelling  contest  came  off,  and  now  that  it  has  been  decided  in  your 
favor  there  is  a  feeling  of  great  joy  that  comes  over  the  whole  body, 
and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  back  the  expression  of  that  joy. 
In  other  words,  he  has  been  strongly  moved. 

I  want  to  impress  now  upon  you  that  as  you  go  on  with  your 
study  of  reading,  you  will  find  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  emotion 
in  many  of  the  passages  you  will  be  called  upon  to  read,  and  the  only 
way  to  discover  what  the  emotion  is,  must  be  by  getting  a  very  clear 
picture.  But  remember  that  the  picture  itself  is  not  very  likely  to 
move  you  unless  you  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  picture  just  as 
you  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  spelling  contest.  Do  you  see  my 
meaning?  One  might  say  the  words,  * 'Three  cheers  for  our  class," 
and  not  express  very  much  emotion.  One  might  even  have  a  very 
clear  picture  of  the  whole  spelling  match,  and  yet  not  be  very  much 
moved.  But  if  you  will  close  your  eyes  and  let  the  picture  get  hold 
of  you,  I  think  there  will  be  no  trouble  about  the  emotion.  Let 
me  see  whether  I  can  make  clear  to  you  what  I  mean  by  letting  the 
picture  get  hold  of  you. 

Suppose  we  take  this  line  from  a  well-known  speech,  "Wolsey 
on  His  Fall:" — ''Farewell,  a  long  farewell  to  all  my  greatness!" 
Who  speaks  those  words?  is  the  first  question.  The  answer  is :  An 
old  man  who  has  been  for  many  years  one  of  the  leading  men  in  the 
court  of  Henry  VIII.    He  has  used  every  effort  to  gain  great  power, 


174  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

and  has  forgotten  his  God,  and  now  at  last  the  king  has  cast  him  off. 
Just  after  Wolsey  has  been  informed  of  his  loss  of  power,  he  utters 
the  words  quoted  above.  Just  think  how  much  these  words 
mean  to  this  poor  man.  Think  how  much  he  must  suffer,  and  then 
try  to  feel  as  much  as  you  can  what  it  would  mean  to  you  if  every- 
thing you  had  hoped  for  and  struggled  for  were  to  be  taken  away 
from  you.  Of  course,  I  know  that  you  have  not  been  so  ambitious 
as  Wolsey,  but  yet  I  think  you  will  have  no  trouble  in  imagining 
just  how  you  would  feel  if  everything  you  cared  for  were  to  be  taken 
away  from  you.  Well,  this  is  all  that  you  need  feel  in  order  to  read 
with  emotion  the  lines  of  Wolsey.  Just  think  this  over  for  a  few 
minutes,  and  then  see  how  much  regret  you  can  feel  as  you  utter 
these  words.  Be  sure  that  you  get  the  meaning  of  the  words; 
be  sure  you  get  hold  of  the  picture ;  try  to  imagine  just  how  you 
would  feel  if  you  were  very  deeply  disappointed,  and  then  utter  the 
words  of  Wolsey. 

This,  then,  is  what  I  mean  by  telling  you  to  let  the  picture  get 
hold  of  you.  When  you  were  exultant  over  the  result  of  the  spell- 
ing contest,  joy  possessed  you.  When  Wolsey  learned  of  his  fall, 
sorrow  and  remorse  possessed  him.  So  with  all  emotions.  You  must 
think  over  the  whole  story ;  you  must  think  over  all  the  events 
connected  with  it  until  you  really  feel  somewhat  as  the  speaker  felt 
whose  words  you  are  reading.  Then  there  will  be  no  trouble 
about  the  expression. 

The  teacher  will  observe  that  the  two  illustrations  are 
chosen  from  two  distinct  fields:  one  near  to  the  child's 
experience,  the  other  far  removed  from  it.  It  is  further 
observed  that  both  are  direct  discourse  rather  than  descrip- 
tion. 

It  seems  the  best  plan  to  begin  the  definite  study  of  emo- 
tional expression  by  using  extracts  in  which  the  pupil  uses 
direct  rather  than  indirect  discourse.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  it  is  far  more  difficult  to  read,  with  expression,  a  passage 
of  description  in  which  the  pupil  would  be  expected  to  put 
emotion,  than  a  piece  of  direct  quotation.  For  instance,  is  it 
not  easier  for  a  child  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  first  of  the 


EMOTION  175 

following  stanzas  than  into  that  of  the  second,  granting  even 
that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  anguish  of  the  father? 

The  father  came  on  deck.     He  gasped, 

*  *0  God  I  thy  will  be  done ! ' ' 
Then  suddenly  a  rifle  grasped, 

And  aimed  it  at  his  son : 
"Jump — far-out,  boy,  into  the  wave! 

Jump,  or  I  fire!  "  he  said; 
"That  only  chance  your  life  can  save  I 

Jump !  jump !  boy ! ' '    He  obeyed. 

He  sank — he  rose — he  lived — he  moved, 

And  for  the  ship  struck  out : 
On  board  we  hailed  the  lad  beloved, 

With  many  a  manly  shout. 
His  father  drew,  in  silent  joy, 

Those  wet  arms  round  his  neck. 
And  folded  to  his  heart  his  boy — 

Then  fainted  on  the  deck. 

In  the  second  place,  the  reason  for  choosing  selections  in 
which  the  emotion  is  akin  to  those  of  the  child's  own  experi- 
ence must  be  clear.  How  many  pupils  ten  or  eleven  years  old 
can  be  expected  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  Whittier's  The 
Barefoot  Boy  9 

Blessings  on  thee,  little  man — 

Barefoot  boy,  with  cheek  of  tan ! 

With  thy  turned-up  pantaloons, 

And  thy  merry  whistled  tunes ; 

With  thy  red  lip,  redder  still. 

Kissed  by  strawberries  on  the  hill ; 

With  the  sunshine  on  thy  face, 

Through  thy  torn  brim's  jaunty  grace; 

From  my  heart  I  give  thee  joy ! 

I  was  once  a  barefoot  boy !  ^ 

It  is  only  to  discourage  him,  to  ask  him  to  feel  like  an  adult 
who  looks  back  upon  the  joys  of  boyhood.     One  hears  this 


176  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

selection  read  in  an  affected  voice  and  manner,  where  it  is  clear 
that  the  child  is  simply  trying  to  imitate  his  teacher.  But 
such  experiences  simply  go  to  prove  the  contention  that  chil- 
dren should  not  be  called  upon  to  represent  emotions  far 
removed  from  their  own  experience. 

But  how  shall  we  get  our  pupils  to  express  emotions 
beyond  their  experience?  The  answer  is :  the  teacher  should 
strive  to  find  those  experiences  in  the  child's  life  that  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  selection  to  be  read.  We  have  shown 
how  this  might  be  done  in  the  line  from  Wolsey's  speech. 
The  child  has  experienced  regret;  let  us  make  use  of  this 
experience  to  get  him  to  feel  something  of  Wolsey's  feeling. 
Again  (and  this  applies  largely  to  advanced  classes),  it  is  by 
no  means  necessary  that  the  pupil  should  ever  have  come  into 
contact  with  the  picture  that  stirs  the  writer,  in  order  to 
represent  the  latter 's  feelings.  It  is  the  joy  that  the  lover 
of  nature  feels  that  finds  expression  in  these  lines : 

How  the  robin  feeds  her  young, 
How  the  oriole's  nest  is  hung; 
Where  the  whitest  lilies  blow, 
Where  the  freshest  berries  grow, 
Where  the  ground-nut  trails  its  vine  ; 
Where  the  wood-grape's  clusters  shine ; 
Of  the  black  wasp's  cunning  way, 
Mason  of  his  walls  of  clay. 

— The  Barefoot  Boy.    Whittier. 

But  how  can  we  get  the  true  expression  from  one  who 
knows  nothing  of  the  joy  we  take  in  contemplating  the  pic- 
tures of  this  stanza?  By  reminding  him  that  our  joy  is  not 
far  different  from  his  when  rejoicing  in  a  beautiful  book,  a 
lucky  hit  at  baseball,  or  a  pretty  Christmas  gift.  Let  us 
remember  that  it  is  not  enough  that  he  shall  get  the  pictures : 
he  must  get  the  joy.  And  if  he  cannot  get  the  joy  from  the 
pictures  of  the  poet,  he  must  get  it  from  the  memory  of  his 


EMOTION  177 

own  past  joy,  no  matter  under  what  circumstances.  It  is 
simply  a  question  of  transferring  his  own  past  emotion  to  the 
present  moment. 

Summarized,  our  points  are : 

First,  choose  emotions  near  to  the  child's  experience. 

Second,  transfer  his  past  experiences  and  emotions  to  the 
particular  poem  or  stanza  to  be  read. 

Third,  use  direct  discourse,  in  drill  work,  as  far  as  possible. 

Perhaps  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  use  selections  in  our 
reading  lessons  that  call  for  an  extremely  difficult  exercise  of 
imagination  on  the  part  of  the  child,  but  since  these  selec- 
tions are  found  in  our  reading  books  it  is  well  to  know  how 
to  do  the  best  possible  under  the  circumstances. 

The  most  important  point  of  all  is  that  children  must  be 
brought  into  contact  with  nature.  We  cannot  expect  them  to 
delight  in  a  description  of  a  sunset,  or  a  robin's  nest,  or  a 
bunch  of  pansies,  when  they  have  never  delighted  in  sunsets, 
or  robins'  nests  or  pansies.  When  their  early  training  is  wise 
they  will  not  need  to  transfer  their  emotions  from  another 
realm  to  read  with  true  expression. 

We  are  now  to  enter  the  more  complex  realm  of  expres- 
sion, in  which  the  emotion  is  more  intense,  and  instead  of  being 
a  single  emotion  is  a  blending  of  many.  Take,  for  example,  the 
trial  scene  from  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  There  are  many 
speeches  of  Shylock  that  might  illustrate  our  point,  and  we 
shall  take  the  first  that  presents  itself.  The  Duke  of  Venice 
has  been  urging  Shylock  to  abandon  his  suit,  whereupon  the 
latter  replies : 

I  have  possessed  your  grace  of  what  I  purpose; 
And  by  our  holy  Sabbath  have  I  sworn, 
To  have  the  due  and  forfeit  of  my  bond. 

What  emotions  does  Shylock  portray?  There  is  the  emotion 
of  hatred  of  Antonio  and  the  feeling  of  obstinacy;  and  there  is. 


178  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

further,  the  sense  of  wrong  that  has  been  heaped  upon  his  race 
in  general,  and  himself  in  particular.  It  would  be  useless  to 
discuss  how  far  each  of  these  elements  is  an  emotion.  It  is 
sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  have  shown  that  these  three 
mental  conditions  are  present  virtually  at  one  time  in  the  brain 
of  the  speaker.  Now,  if  any  one  of  these  elements  (to  say 
nothing  of  others  that  might  be  mentioned)  is  omitted,  the 
characterization  will  lack  truthfulness. 

There  is  another  element  in  complexity  of  expression  that 
needs  a  moment's  attention.  The  emotion  itself  may  be  a 
simple  one,  but  the  character  we  aim  to  represent  may  be  so 
far  removed  from  our  own  that  one  must  assume  or  take  on 
many  attributes.  For  instance,  if  one  were  portraying  old 
Adam  in  As  You  Like  It^  he  would  be  compelled  to  mani- 
fest the  weakness  of  old  age  in  body  and  voice.  Now,  when 
the  old  man  says,  "Dear  master,  I  can  go  no  further;  0,  I 
die  for  food,"  it  is  not  sufficient  for  the  reader  to  portray 
simply  the  pathos  of  the  line,  but  his  expression  becomes 
more  complex  in  so  far  as  it  must  manifest  both  the  pathos 
and  the  weakness. 

In  preparing  to  present  the  emotions  in  the  following; 
extracts  it  is  well  for  the  student  to  study  carefully  the  naturt? 
of  the  thought,  the  emotion,  and  the  character  separately,  ano 
conceive  each  of  the  simpler  emotional  elements  by  itself. 
If  he  is  representing,  let  us  say,  pathos  and  dignity,  let  him 
hold  dignity  before  his  mind  until  the  whole  being  responds ; 
then  let  him  conceive  pathos  by  itself ;  and,  finally,  let  him 
conceive  pathos  and  dignity,  and  endeavor  to  present  them. 
This  process  will  not  be  necessary  in  all  cases;  for  there 
are  those  who  can  conceive  these  more  complex  conditions 
with  one  effort,  as  it  were.  But  unless  the  student  has 
this  ability,  the  preceding  process  should  be  followed.  And 
even  when  a  student  has  the  necessary  ability  to  conceive  the 


EMOTION  179 

complete  expression  at  once,  he  is  very  likely  to  lose  some  of 
what  might  be  called  the  ingredients  of  a  composite  emotion. 
For  instance,  in  representing  the  strong  language  of  one  who 
might  be  said  never  to  lose  his  anger,  the  student  who  is  par- 
ticularly choleric  by  nature  is  very  likely  to  forget  the  dignity 
of  the  character.  He  may  be  reminded  of  his  error  by  recall- 
ing dignity  to  his  mind,  and  at  once  the  natural  temperament 
of  the  speaker  will  be  modified  by  the  new  stimulus.     • 

It  might  also  be  well  to  consider  here  another  reason  for 
the  practice  of  these  illustrations.  Many  students  are  tempera- 
mentally restricted  and  shy,  and  others  have  become  so 
tliroiigh  training  and  environment.  Before  these  can  hope  to 
become  effective  readers  there  must  be  a  certain  amount  of 
genuine  abandon.  Hence,  even  if  a  student  may  never  have 
any  use  for  the  ability  to  impersonate,  the  practice  here 
recommended  will  prove  to  be  one  of  the  best,  surest,  and 
quickest  methods  of  bringing  him  out  of  himself.  The  aban- 
don thus  gained  will  stand  him  in  good  stead  in  any  effort  he 
may  be  called  upon  to  make  as  a  public  speaker. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  niceties  of  form  are  not  to  be 
expected  for  a  long  time.  If  the  student's  abandon  is 
developed,  that  is  all  that  should  be  expected. 

In  the  following  speech  the  student  must  never  forget  that 
Othello  is  a  warrior,  one  accustomed  to  command,  and  of  large 
heart.  His  dignity,  therefore,  must  be  manifest  throughout 
the  address : 

Most  potent,  grave,  and  reverend  signiors, 

My  very  noble  and  approv'd  good  masters, — 

That  I  have  ta'en  away  this  old  man's  daughter, 

It  is  most  true ;  true,  I  have  married  her ; 

The  very  head  and  front  of  my  offending 

Hath  this  extent,  no  more.    Rude  am  I  in  my  speech, 

And  little  bless' d  with  the  soft  phrase  of  peace; 


180  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

For,  since  these  arms  of  mine  had  seven  years'  pith, 

Till  now  some  nine  moons  wasted,  they  have  used 

Their  dearest  action  in  the  tented  field ; 

And  little  of  this  great  world  can  I  speak, 

More  than  pertains  to  feats  of  broil  and  battle, 

And  therefore  little  shall  I  grace  my  cause 

In  speaking  for  myself.     Yet,  by  your  gracious  patience, 

I  will  a  round  unvarnished  tale  deliver 

Of  my  whole  course  of  love ;  what  drugs,  what  charms, 

What  conjuration,  and  what  mighty  magic, 

(For  such  proceeding  I  am  charg'd  withal,) 

I  won  his  daughter  with. 

Her  father  lov'd  me;  oft  invited  me; 

Still  question 'd  me  the  story  of  my  life. 

From  year  to  year ;  the  battles,  sieges,  fortunes, 

That  I  have  passed. 

I  ran  it  through,  even  from  my  boyish  days, 

To  the  very  moment  that  he  bade  me  tell  it : 

Wherein  I  spake  of  most  disastrous  chances. 

Of  moving  accidents  by  flood  and  field, 

Of  hair-breadth  'scapes  i'  the  imminent  deadly  breach; 

Of  being  taken  by  the  insolent  foe, 

And  sold  to  slavery ;  of  my  redemption  thence. 

And  portance  in  my  travel's  history. — 

—Othello,  Act  i.,  Sc.  3. 

Another  excellent  extract  for  practice  is  the  following 
speech  of  Cassias  from  the  first  act  of  JttUus  Caesar.  Note 
the  dignity,  the  sarcasm,  the  ridicule,  the  contempt,  and  the 
sense  of  triumph : 

I  cannot  tell  what  you  and  other  men 
Think  of  this  life ;  but,  for  my  single  self, 
I  had  as  lief  not  be,  as  live  to  be 
In  awe  of  such  a  thing  as  I  myself. 
I  was  born  as  free  as  Caesar ;  so  were  you : 
We  both  have  fed  as  well,  and  we  can  both 
Endure  the  winter's  cold  as  well  as  he: 
For  once  upon  a  raw  and  gusty  day, 


EMOTION  181 

The  troubled  Tiber  chafing  with  her  shores, 

Caesar  said  to  me,  *' Barest  thou,  Cassius,  now 

Leap  in  with  me  into  this  angry  flood. 

And  swim  to  yonder  point?"    Upon  the  word, 

Accoutred  as  I  was,  I  plunged  in, 

And  bade  him  follow ;  so  indeed  he  did. 

The  torrent  roared,  and  we  did  buffet  it 

With  lusty  sinews,  throwing  it  aside 

And  stemming  it  with  hearts  of  controversy ; 

But  ere  we  could  arrive  the  point  proposed, 

Caesar  cried,  "Help  me,  Cassius,  or  I  sink!" 

I,  as  ^neas,  our  great  ancestor. 

Did  from  the  flames  of  Troy  upon  his  shoulder 

The  old  Anchises  bear,  so  from  the  waves  of  Tiber 

Did  I  the  tirfed  Caesar.     And  this  man 

Is  now  become  a  god,  and  Cassius  is 

A  wretched  creature,  and  must  bend  his  body. 

If  Caesar  carelessly  but  nod  on  him. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  i.,  Sc.  2. 

These  speeches  of  Cassio  in  Othello  show  remorse,  self- 
contempt,  with  anger  and  regret: 

Cassio.  Reputation,  reputation,  reputation!  Oh!  I  have  lost 
my  reputation.  I  have  lost  the  immortal  part  of  myself,  and  what 
remains  is  bestial.     My  reputation,  lago,  my  reputation ! 

Iago.  As  I  am  an  honest  man,  I  thought  you  had  received 
some  bodily  woiuid ;  there  is  more  sense  in  that  than  in  reputation. 
Reputation  is  an  idle  and  most  false  imposition ;  oft  got  without 
merit,  and  lost  without  deserving :  you  have  lost  no  reputation  at 
all,  unless  you  repute  yourself  such  a  loser.  What,  man !  there  are 
ways  to  recover  the  general  again:  you  are  but  now  cast  in  his 
mood,  a  punishment  more  in  policy  than  in  malice ;  even  so  as  one 
would  beat  his  offenseless  dog,  to  affright  an  imperious  lion.  Sue  to 
him  again,  and  he's  yours. 

Cassio.  I  will  rather  sue  to  be  despised,  than  to  deceive  so  good 
a  commander  with  so  slight,  so  drunken,  and  so  indiscreet  an 
officer.  Drunk?  and  speak  parrot?  and  squabble?  swagger?  swear, 
and  discourse  fustian  with  one's  own  shadow?     0  thou  invisible 


182  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

spirit  of  wine !  if  thou  hast  no  name  to  be  known  by,  let  us  call  thee 
devil. 

Iago.  What  was  he  that  you  followed  with  your  sword?  What 
had  he  done  to  you? 

Cassio.     I  know  not. 

Iago.    Is  't  possible? 

Cassio.  I  remember  a  mass  of  things,  but  nothing  distinctly ;  a 
quarrel,  but  nothing  wherefore.  O  God,  that  men  should  put  an 
enemy  in  their  mouths,  to  steal  away  their  brains !  that  we  should, 
with  joy,  pleasance,  revel,  and  applause,  transform  ourselves  into 
beasts ! 

Iago.  Why,  but  you  are  now  well  enough :  how  came  you  thus 
recovered? 

Cassio.  It  has  pleased  the  devil  drunkenness,  to  give  place  to 
the  devil  wrath :  one  unperf ectness  shows  me  another,  to  make  me 
frankly  despise  myself. 

Iago.  Come,  you  are  too  severe  a  moraler.  As  the  time,  the 
place,  and  the  condition  of  this  country  stands,  I  could  heartily 
wish  this  had  not  befallen ;  but,  since  it  is  as  it  is,  mend  it  for  your 
own  good. 

Cassio.  I  will  ask  him  for  my  place  again :  he  shall  tell  me,  I 
am  a  drunkard.  Had  I  as  many  mouths  as  Hydra,  such  an  answer 
would  stop  them  all.  To  be  now  a  sensible  man,  by-and-by  a  fool, 
and  presently  a  beast!  O,  strange!  Every  inordinate  cup  is 
unblessed,  and  the  ingredient  is  a  devil. — Othello,  Act  ii.,  Sc.  3. 

In  conclusion,  begin  with  simple  emotions.  Do  not  ask 
the  younger  pupils  to  represent  intense  pathos,  great 
solemnity,  and  the  like.  Keserve  these  for  the  upper  grades 
of  the  high  school.  Again,  avoid  the  baser  emotions,  such  as 
anger,  hate,  jealousy.  Time  does  not  permit  us  to  enlarge  on 
this,  but  the  whole  trend  of  the  best  psychology  is  in  favor  of 
this  admonition.  Select  extracts  in  which  the  characters 
manifest  simple,  noble,  inspiring,  and  uplifting  feeling. 
Patriotism,  self-sacrifice,  love  of  nature,  these  are  the  themes 
with  which  the  imagination  of  the  pupils  should  come  into 
contact. 


EMOTION  183 

The  teacher  is  heartily  advised  to  gather  a  dozen  or  more 
extracts  and  speeches  (from  this  book  and  elsewhere)  under 
three  or  four  significant  heads,  such  as  patriotism,  love  of 
nature,  etc.,  and  to  keep  the  class  at  each  phase  until  definite 
results  are  attained.  There  is  no  hesitation  in  deprecating 
the  method  that  compels  teachers  to  teach  any  lesson  simply 
because  it  follows,  numerically,  the  preceding  lesson.  The 
proper  method  is  hinted  at  elsewhere.  A  few  words  are 
now  added  to  justify  that  method.  In  many  readers  there 
may  be  two  patriotic  selections ;  one  at  the  beginning,  one  at 
the  end.  Probably  a  year  will  intervene  between  these  two. 
Is  it  not  good  pedagogy  to  take  up  these  lessons  in  succession? 
To  keep  the  pupils  in  a  patriotic  mood  for  five  consecutive 
days  must  be  certainly  productive  of  better  results  than  can  be 
obtained  by  the  other  method  of  Lesson  I,  Lesson  II,  Lesson 
III.  So  also  with  other  emotions.  When  a  certain  emotion 
is  present  in  only  one  or  two  paragraphs  of  a  selection,  only 
those  paragraphs  need,  of  course,  to  be  prepared. 


CHAPTEE   XII 


ATMOSPHEKE 


This  element  of  expression,  perhaps  more  than  any  other, 
manifests  the  artistic  nature  of  the  reader ;  artistic,  inasmuch 
as  the  atmosphere,  or  vocal  color,  shows  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  reader  to  sense  stimuli ;  shows  that  he  is  moved  by  the 
contemplation  of  the  beautiful,  the  sublime,  the  tender,  the 
pathetic.  This  element  is  called  by  different  names,  but  per- 
haps none  is  more  significant  than  Atmosphere.  This  effect  is 
not  easy  to  describe,  and  yet  it  is  as  real  as  rhythm  or  inflection 
or  any  other  of  the  elements  discussed  in  this  book.  (  Atmos- 
phere is  that  sympathetic  quality  of  voice  that  manifests  the 
spirit  of  literature.\  Who  can  fail  to  notice  the  tender 
motherly  sympathy  Uhat  pervades  every  word  of  the  lyi'ic 
Sweet  and  Low?  Now  compare  this  with  the  knights' 
chorus  from  The  Coming  of  Arthur,  This  is  permeated 
throughout  with  the  spirit  of  the  Eound  Table.  The  spirit 
of  motherly  love  in  the  former,  and  of  knightly  courage  and 
the  clang  of  arms  in  the  latter,  completely  envelop  these 
poems,  and  permeate  every  letter.  Therefore,  in  the  rendering 
the  reader  must  exercise  the  greatest  care  not  to  dissipate  this 
atmosphere.  The  least  misstep,  one  false  note,  and  the 
atmosphere  is  dissipated. 

In  longer  selections  there  may  be  variety  of  atmosphere  in 
the  different  stanzas  or  paragraphs,  provided  always  that  the 
variety  enhances  the  poem  as  a  whole.  Mere  variety  in  reading 
is  not  art,  but  chaos,  says  Professor  Corson. 

The  following  lines  from  Matthew  Arnold's  Bohrdb  and 


ATMOSPHERE  185 

Rustuw/^  illustrate  the  principle  of  variety  in  unity.  The 
poem  purports  to  be  an  extract  from  the  epic  of  Rustum,  the 
Persian  Achilles,  and  is  especially  marked  by  a  dignity  truly 
Homeric.  This  atmosphere  of  dignity  envelops  every  line. 
Hence  pathos  and  joy,  patriotism  and  defiance,  scorn  and  con,- 
tempt,  and  all  the  other  emotions,  are  always  dignified.  The 
Tartar  champion,  Sohrab,  challenges  the  bravest  Persian 
champion  to  meet  him  in  single  combat;  and  the  Tartar 
leader,  Peran-Wisa,  announces  the  challenge.  The  Tartars 
love  their  hero,  and  the  thrill  that  pervades  their  army  is 
significant  of  that  love.  But  the  Persian  champion,  Achilles- 
like, sulks  in  his  tent ;  and  the  knowledge  of  this  fact,  when 
the  announcement  of  the  challenge  is  heard  by  the  Persians, 
fills  them  with  awe  and  dismay.  Eead  the  following  lines, 
bringing  out  the  significant  atmosphere  of  the  two  parts  of  the 
contrast,  but  being  careful  to  bear  in  mind  the  general 
atmosphere  of  dignity : 

And  the  old  Tartar  came  upon  the  sand 
Betwixt  the  silent  hosts,  and  spake,  and  said: — 

*'Ferood,  and  ye,  Persians  and  Tartars  hearl 
Let  there  be  truce  between  the  hosts  to-day. 
But  choose  a  champion  from  the  Persian  lords 
To  fight  our  champion  Sohrab,  man  to  man." 

As,  in  the  countrj^,  on  a  morn  in  June, 
When  the  dew  glistens  on  the  pearled  ears, 
A  shiver  runs  through  the  deep  corn  for  joy — 
So,  when  they  heard  what  Peran-Wisa  said, 
A  thrill  through  all  the  Tartar  squadrons  ran 
Of  pride  and  hope  for  Sohrab,  whom  they  loved. 

But  as  a  troop  of  peddlers  from  Cabool, 
Cross  underneath  the  Indian  Caucasus, 

♦It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  insert  the  complete  poems  men- 
tioned in  this  chapter.  These  are  ail,  however,  easily  available,  and  it 
is  hoped  that  the  teacher  will  read  them. 


186  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  vast  sky-neighboring  mountain  of  milk  snow ; 
Crossing  so  high,  that,  as  they  mount,  they  pass 
Long  flocks  of  traveling  birds  dead  on  the  snow, 
Choked  by  the  air,  and  scarce  can  they  themselves 
Slake  their  parch 'd  throats  with  sugar 'd  mulberries — 
In  single  file  they  move  and  stop  their  breath, 
For  fear  they  should  dislodge  the  o'er  hanging  snows — 
So  the  pale  Persians  held  their  breath  with  fear. 

The  reader  must  also  bear  in  mind  that  from  the  very 
beginning  of  each  picture  the  atmosphere  of  joy  and  fear 
respectively  must  be  in  the  mind,  and  must  never  be  lost  sight 
of  under  any  circumstances. 

Sometimes  the  atmosphere  is  modified  by  the  fact  that  the 
speaker  is  quoting  the  words  of  another  person,  and  then  it  is 
often  a  matter  of  the  most  sulDtle  analysis  to  determine  the 
extent  to  which  the  quoted  words  will  modify  the  atmosphere 
of  the  reader,  whether  speaking  in  his  own  person  or  in  the 
person  of  another. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  literature  that  must  be  considered 
in  this  connection.  First,  that  class  in  which  the  reader  tells 
the  story  in  his  own  person.  Second,  when  the  reading  is  a 
personation  throughout.  An  example  of  the  first  class  is 
The  Idyls  of  the  King;  and  of  the  second,  the  *' Instiga- 
tion" speech  of  Cassius  in  Julius  Caesar.  The  principle 
governing  atmosphere  applies  equally  and  in  the  same  way  to 
both  kinds  of  selections.  The  knowledge  of  this  fact  will 
often  be  valuable  to  the  reader. 

We  get  a  good  example  in  the  ''Instigation"  speech, 
where  Cassius  tells  Brutus  that  Caesar,  when  he  had  a  fever, 
cried,  ''  'Give  me  some  drink,  Titinius,'  as  a  sick  girl." 
The  whole  matter  of  atmosphere,  as  far  as  que  ted  words  are 
concerned,  will  be  made  clear  by  a  study  of  this  simple 
passage.  Cassius  is  so  exercised  over  the  success  of  Caesar 
and  his  own  consequent  humiliation,  that  his  scorn  and  rage 


ATMOSPHERE  .   187 

are  well-nigh  boundless.  As  the  torrent  of  his  emotion  rushes 
forth,  is  it  not  entirely  inconsistent  with  our  knowledge  of 
human  nature  to  suppose  that  that  torrent  would  be  so 
impeded  or  arrested  when  Cassius  came  to  the  above  words, 
that  he  would  stop  to  reproduce  the  actual  manner  and  tones 
of  Caesar?  What  Cassius  probably  does  is  to  suggest  some- 
thing of  the  effeminate  manner  of  Caesar  enveloped  in  Cassius' 
own  atmosphere  of  bitterest  loathing  and  contempt.  One 
will  be  helped  in  work  of  this  kind  by  asking  himself  the  ques- 
tion. What  is  the  atmosphere  of  the  speaker?  Then,  having 
determined  this,  he  must  next  make  up  his  mind,  through  his 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  to  what  extent  this  atmosphere 
is  modified  by  the  quoted  words  that  are  introduced  into  the 
body  of  the  story.  He  may  be  assisted  in  determining  this 
by  putting  a  second  question  to  himself.  Is  what  the  quoted 
words  convey,  or  the  manner  in  which  they  are  conveyed,  of 
the  greater  importance?  This  is  well  illustrated  in  King 
Robert  of  Sicily,  It  makes  no  difference  in  this  particular 
poem  how  the  sexton  uttered  the  words,  "Who  is  there?"  and, 
consequently,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  give  them  any  very 
significant  atmosphere.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  words  are 
really  equivalent  to  indirect  discourse;  the  expression  would 
convey  exactly  the  same  meaning  to  the  listener  if  read, 
Asking  who  was  within.  The  following  from  King  Lear  is 
full  of  suggestiveness  in  this  connection.  We  recall  that 
Kent  has  sent  a  gentleman  to  Cordelia  to  tell  her  of  the  con- 
dition of  her  father.  Later  in  the  drama,  Kent  meets  the 
gentleman,  and  from  him  gets  the  story  of  the  manner  in 
which  Cordelia  received  the  sad  news  of  her  father's  suffering. 
How  truly  ridiculous  it  would  be  for  the  gentleman  to  imitate 
the  manner  of  Cordelia!  The  psychological  explanation  of 
what  happens  is  probably  this:  As  he  relates  the  story  to 
Kent,  the  tearful  face  and  voice  of  Cordelia  come  into  his 


188  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

mind,  and,  since  there  is  always  in  human  nature  a  tendency 
to  become  that  which  one  describes,  something  of  the  manner 
of  Cordelia  will  be  suggested  in  the  voice  of  the  speaker ;  but 
let  us  bear  in  mind  that  the  imitation  is  not  intentional 
and  detailed,  but  instinctive  and  suggestive  only.  It  is  not 
meant  that  the  reader  is  not  conscious  of  what  he  is  doing, 
but  that  the  gentleman  (to  use  a  concrete  illustration)  is  not 
consciously  imitating  Cordelia.  The  artistic  reader  in, 
reproducing  this  scene  is  conscious  of  what  he  is  doing,  but 
consciously  sympathetic,  not  imitative : 

Kent.     Did  your  letters  pierce  the  queen  to  any  demonstration 
of  grief? 

Gentleman.    Ay,  sir ;  she  took  them,  read  them  in  my  presence ; 
And  now  and  then  an  ample  tear  trilled  down 
Her  delicate  cheek :  it  seemed,  she  was  a  queen 
Over  her  passion,  who,  most  rebeMike, 
Sought  to  be  king  o'er  her. 

Kent.  O,  then  it  moved  her. 

Gentleman.    Not  to  a  rage :  patience  and  sorrow  strove 
Who  should  express  her  goodliest.     You  have  seen 
Sunshine  and  rain  at  once ;  her  smiles  and  tears 
Were  Uke  a  better  May :  those  happy  smilets 
That  played  on  her  ripe  Hp,  seemed  not  to  know 
What  guests  were  in  her  eyes,  which  parted  thence 
As  pearls  from  diamonds  dropped. — In  brief, 
Sorrow  would  be  a  rarity  most  beloved. 
If  all  could  so  become  it. 

Kent.  Made  she  no  verbal  question? 

Gentleman.     'Faith,  once,  or  twice,  she  heav'd  the  name  of 
* 'father," 
Pantingly  forth,  as  if  it  pressed  her  heart ; 
Cried,  "Sisters!  sisters!    Shame  of  ladies!  sisters! 
Kent!  father!  sisters!    What?  i'  the  storm?  i'  the  night? 
Let  pity  not  be  believed!" — There  she  shook 
The  holy  water  from  her  heavenly  eyes. 
And  clamor  moistened :  then  away  she  started 
To  deal  with  grief  alone.  — King  Lear,  Act  iv. ,  So.  3. 


ATMOSPHERE  189 

This  leads  to  another  feature  of  the  study  of  atmosphere. 
In  the  following  lines  from  the  Elegy  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard^ we  certainly  speak  slowly;  but  let  it  be  remembered 
that  this  is  done,  not  in  imitation  of  the  slow  movement  of 
the  objects  described,  but  in  sympathy  with  them.  The 
solemnity  and  dignity  of  the  occasion  so  affect  us  that  our 
movement  becomes  slow,  and  this  movement  and  the  right 
vocal  quality  give  us  the  proper  atmosphere. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds, 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds: 

Save  that  from  yonder  ivy-mantled  tower, 
The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 

Of  such  as,  wandering  near  her  secret  bower. 
Molest  her  ancient  solitary  reign. 

Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade. 
Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  moldering  heap, 

Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid, 
The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 

Let  us  remember,  too,  that  an  event  which  once  filled  us 
with  joy  may  be  recalled  with  pain  and  sorrow^  and  that  it  is 
our  present  condition  that  determines  the  atmosphere.  Brown- 
ing's Patriot  will  illustrate  this. 

The  untrained  reader  is  altogether  too  prone  to  imitation ; 
but  let  him  bear  in  mind  that  imitation,  if  ever  art,  is  its 
lowest  form,  f  The  province  of  the  reader  is  to  manifest, 
through  his  interpretation,  the  innermost  spirit  of  the  poem,  j 
Very  often  by  imitating,  by  literally  reproducing  the  voice,  man- 


190  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

ner,  and  movements,  we  obscure  the  underlying  spirit  of  the 
line,  paragraph  or  poem.  There  are  certain  readers,  for 
instance,  who  sing,  Non  ti  scordar  di  me,  in  Aux  Italiens. 
For  the  sake  of  argument,  we  might  admit,  that  at  the  end  of 
the  poem  there  might  be  some  slightest  justification  for  this 
procedure;  but  in  the  beginning,  it  is  absolutely  indefensible. 
The  speaker  is  in  a  deep  reverie;  he  dwells  in  the  past.  His 
mind  goes  back  to  a  visit  to  the  opera-house  in  Pai'is,  years 
before.  The  opera  is  II  Trovatore;  and  the  heroine  comes 
before  us  seeking  her  lover,  who  has  been  snatched  from  her 
arms  through  the  jealousy  of  another.  She  arrives  before  the 
monastery  as  the  monks  chant  the  Miserere,  Her  prayer 
ascends  heavenward;  and  when  she  ceases,  there  rises  clear 
and  passionately  the  voice  of  her  lover  from  within  his  cell, 
singing,  Non  ti  scordar  di  me  (Forget  me  not).  As  the  audi- 
ence in  the  opera-house  hear  these  words,  their  minds  go  back 
to  the  past.  The  king  goes  back  to  his  early  triumphs ;  the 
queen's  mind  reverts  to  her  life  in  Spain;  the  wife  of  the 
Marquis  of  Carabas  lets  her  thoughts  glide  back  to  her  first 
husband;  and  to  the  speaker's  mind  there  comes  the  vision  of 
his  early  love.  Non  ti  scordar  di  me,  then,  is  the  source  of 
the  poem.  The  tie  that  binds  us  to  the  past  is  the  poet's 
theme,  "Old  things  are  best."  Now  let  us  look  at  the  stanza 
at  the  end  of  which  occurs  the  line  we  are  discussing : 

The  moon  on  the  tower  slept  soft  as  snow, 
And  who  was  not  thrilled  in  the  strangest  way, 
As  we  heard  him  sing  while  the  gas  burned  low, 
^^Non  ti  scordar  di  me." 

In  the  first  place,  when  one  sings  these  lines,  he  is  just  a  little 
likely  to  be  deemed  presumptuous  when  it  is  recalled  that 
the  previous  stanza  has  said : 

And  Mario  can  soothe  with  a  tenor  note. 
The  souls  in  purgatory. 


ATMOSPHERE  191 

It  is  hardly  likely  that  the  reader  is  a  Mario ;  but  this  is  a 
small  criticism,  comparatively  speaking.  The  atmosphere  of 
the  poem  is  one  of  reverie ;  and  what  possesses  the  speaker  is 
not  the  literal  way  the  words  were  sung,  but  the  memory  of 
the  thrill  that  passed  through  him  and  through  the  audience 
as  these  words  rang  out  in  a  pause  of  the  solemn  Miserere  of 
the  monks.  Let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  argument  is 
not  against  the  singing  as  singing,  but  against  the  method 
that  would  completely  destroy  the  atmosphere  of  the  poem 
for  the  sake  of  a  vocal  affectation.  What  should  be  expressed 
is  the  rapture  of  the  speaker  as  he  recalls  those  passionate 
words  and  tones,  in  his  present  moment  of  contemplation. 
There  are  certain  reprints  of  this  poem  that  leave  out  the 
stanzas  describing  the  effect  of  the  song  on  the  king,  the  queen, 
and  the  marchioness.  Does  this  not  prove  that  those  who 
print  such  versions  have  missed  the  very  essence  of  the  story? 

There  is  one  more  element  that  we  are  to  discuss  in  this 
connection,  and  that  is  the  atmosphere  of  sympathy  that 
envelops  the  reading  of  description.  This  atmosphere  shows 
the  effect  upon  us  of  that  which  the  author  describes. 

The  tendency  of  most  readers  is  toward  imitation, — ^to 
groan  and  moan,  and  laugh  and  cry,  whenever  these  words 
appear  in  the  selection  interpreted.  In  such  passages  as  the 
following  from  Aldrich's  Face  Against  the  Pane^  we  have 
heard  more  than  one  reader  imitate  the  screeching  and  the 
moaning,  and  the  groaning  and  the  breaking : 

She  hears  the  sea  bird  screech, 
And  the  breakers  on  the  beach 
Making  moan,  making  moan. 

And  again,  in  the  same  poem,  we  have  heard  imitations  of  the 
tolling  bells  in : 

How  it  tolls  for  the  souls 
Of  the  sailors  on  the  seai 


192  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

In  these  passages  and  all  similar  ones,  as,  for  instance,  those 
already  quoted  from  the  Elegy  in  a  Country  Clinrchyard^ 
our  aim  should  be  to  manifest  through  the  atmosphere 
the  effect  of  the  description  upon  ourselves. 

Perhaps  it  will  assist  us  to  get  a  clearer  conception  of  this 
important  feature  if  we  discuss  a  few  typical  examples,  even 
repeating  some  of  the  selections  already  used  in  the  discussion. 

Example  1  (from  Sohrah  and  Eustum).  The  atmosphere 
of  the  first  simile  is  that  of  joy ;  not  in  imitation  of  the  joy  of 
the  Tartars,  but  because  we  are  moved  to  joy  by  our  sympathy 
with  Sohrab. 

Example  2  (ibid,).  We  do  not  express  the  fear  of  the 
Persians  or  of  the  peddlers,  but  our  contempt  for  the  former 
— perhaps  slightly  tinged,  through  sympathy,  with  their  fear. 

Example  S  (from  Kiiig  Robert  of  Sicily),  The  atmos- 
phere is  that  of  simple  narrative,  which  is  in  no  wise  changed 
by  the  words  of  the  sexton. 

Example  Jf,  Eugene  Field's  Little  Boy  Blue  presents  a 
father  standing  before  the  dust -covered  toys  of  his  dead  child. 
The  father  speaks  throughout,  and  yet  there  are  those  who 
actually  imitate  the  voice  and  manner  of  the  child  in  the 
opening  lines  of  the  second  stanza : 

*'Now  don't  you  go  till  I  come,"  he  said, 

"And  don't  you  make  any  noise;" 
So  toddling  off  to  his  trundle-bed 

He  dreamt  of  the  pretty  toys. 

It  is  the  father  we  want,  not  the  child. 

Example  5  (from  the  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard), 
We  read  the  passage  slowly,  not  because  we  desire  to  imitate 
the  slow  movement  of  the  objects  described,  but  because  we 
are  impressed  by  their  solemnity. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  principle  here  discussed  has  no 


ATMOSPHERE  193 

value  except  for  advanced  pupils  or  for  those  wlio  desire  to 
make  a  specialty  of  reading.  This  is  a  grave  error  and  one 
that  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  spiritless  reading  of  our 
schools.  At  least  one-half  of  the  selections  in  our  readers, 
above  the  second,  present  opportunities  for  the  expression  of 
what  we  have  termed  sympathy.  In  the  chapter  on 
Values  we  observed  that  there  were  ever-vai'ying  phases  of 
thought  and  feeling,  each  one  of  which  would  be  read  with  a 
different  atmosphere.  Let  us  look  at  another  complete  poem 
solely  with  a  view  to  applying  the  principles  of  phases  and  of 
atmosphere : 

Gusty  and  raw  was  the  morning  : 

A  fog  hung  over  the  seas, 
And  its  gray  skirts,  rolling  inland. 

Were  torn  by  the  moimtain-trees. 
,  No  sound  was  heard  but  the  dashing 

Of  waves  on  the  sandy  bar, 
When  Pablo  of  San  Diego 

Rode  down  to  the  Paso  del  Mar.  8 

The  pescador,  out  in  his  shallop, 

Gathering  his  harvest  so  wide. 
Sees  the  dim  bulk  of  the  headland 

Loom  over  the  waste  of  the  tide ; 
He  sees,  like  a  white  thread,  the  pathway 

Wind  round  on  the  terrible  wall, 
Where  the  faint,  moving  speck  of  the  rider 

Seems  hovering  close  to  its  fall!  16 

Stout  Pablo  of  San  Diego 

Rode  down  from  the  hills  behind ; 
With  the  bells  on  his  gray  mule  tinkling, 

He  sang  through  the  fog  and  wind. 
Under  his  thick,  misted  eyebrows 

Twinkled  his  eye  like  a  star. 
And  fiercer  he  sang  as  the  sea- winds 

Drove  cold  on  the  Paso  del  Mar.  24 


194  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Now  Bernal,  the  herdsman  of  Corral, 

Had  traveled  the  shore  since  dawn. 
Leaving  the  ranches  behind  him : 

Good  reason  had  he  to  be  gone ! 
The  blood  was  still  red  on  his  dagger, 

The  fury  was  hot  in  his  brain, 
And  the  chill,  driving  scud  of  the  breakers 

Beat  thick  on  his  forehead  in  vain.  32 

With  his  blanket  wrapped  gloomily  round  him 

He  mounted  the  dizzying  road, 
And  the  chasms  and  steeps  of  the  headland 

Were  slippery  and  wet  as  he  trode. 
Wild  swept  the  wind  of  the  ocean, 

Rolling  the  fog  from  afar. 
When  near  him  a  mule-bell  came  tinkling, 

Midway  on  the  Paso  del  Mar.  40 

**Back!"  shouted  Bernal  full  fiercely, 

And  "Back!"  shouted  Pablo  in  wrath, 
As  his  mule  halted,  startled  and  shrinking, 

On  the  perilous  line  of  the  path. 
The  roar  of  devouring  surges 

Came  up  from  the  breakers'  hoarse  war ; 
And  "Back,  or  you  perish!"  cried  Bernal; 

"I  turn  not  on  Paso  del  Mar!"  48 

The  gray  mule  stood  firm  as  the  headland; 

He  clutched  at  the  jingling  rein. 
When  Pablo  rose  up  in  his  saddle 

And  smote  till  he  dropped  it  again. 
A  wild  oath  of  passion  swore  Bernal, 

And  brandished  his  dagger  still  red ; 
While  fiercely  stout  Pablo  leaned  forward, 

And  fought  o'er  his  trusty  mule's  head.  66 

They  fought  till  the  black  wall  below  them 

Shone  red  through  the  misty  blast. 
Stout  Pablo  then  struck,  leaning  farther. 

The  broad  breast  of  Bernal  at  last ; 


ATMOSPHERE  195 

And,  frenzied  with  pain,  the  swart  herdsman 
Closed  round  him  with  terrible  clasp, 

And  jerked  him,  despite  of  his  struggles, 
Down  from  the  mule  in  his  grasp.  64 

They  grappled  with  desperate  madness 

On  the  slippery  edge  of  the  wall ; 
They  swayed  on  the  brink,  and  together 

Reeled  out  to  the  rush  of  the  fall ! 
A  cry  of  the  wildest  death-anguish 

Rang  faint  through  the  mist  afar. 
And  the  riderless  mule  went  homeward 

From  the  fight  of  the  Paso  del  Mar !  72 

— The  Fight  of  Paso  del  Mar.    Bayard  Taylor. 

1.  1-4. — Simple  description,  the  last  line  slightly  colored 
with  emotion. 

1.  5,  6. — Note  how  the  voice  becomes  suppressed  in 
sympathy  with  the  picture. 

1.  7,  8. — Simple  description. 

1.  9-12. — Simple  description. 

1.  13-16. — The  important  part  this  pathway  is  to  play  in 
the  poem  and  the  danger  of  the  rider  will  bring  the  sugges- 
tion of  fear  into  the  voice  of  the  reader.  It  is  the  effect  of 
the  picture  upon  us  that  we  must  manifest ;  this  is  half  the 
art  of  reading. 

1.  17-24. — The  joy  of  Pablo  will  find  an  echo  in  our 
reading,  as  will  his  joyous  defiance  in  1.  23,  24. 

1.  25-27. — Simple  description  to  **behind  him,"  when 
the  coming  event  casts  its  shadow  before;  the  color  of  the 
next  line  is  clearly  anticipated  on  these  two  words. 

1.  28. — The  atmosphere  is  difficult  to  characterize  in  a 
word,  but  not  to  manifest. 

1.  29-32. — Note  the  marked  change.  The  atmospnere  is 
largely  that  of  sympathy — fury  and  dogged,  gloomy  determi- 


196  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

« 
nation.     Perhaps  there  might  be  something  of  our  horror  and 

loathing  in  1.  29. 

1.  33-36. — Simple  description, 

1.  37,  38.— Sympathy. 

1.  39,  40.— Fear. 

1.  41,  42. — The  atmosphere  is  that  of  the  speakers. 

1.  43,  44. — Our  fear  of  a  fatal  misstep. 

1.  45,  46.— The  effect  upon  us,  not  imitation  of  the  roar. 

1.  47,  48. — ^Anger  and  determination. 

1.  49.— See  1.  45,  46. 

1.  50-56. — Virtually  the  same  atmosphere,  throughout,  of 
terror,  strife,  determination,  hate. 

1.  57,  58.— Oh!  the  pity  of  it. 

1.  59-64.— See  1.  50-56. 

1.  65-68. — Terror  and  fear  increase  until  the  climax  on 
''faU." 

1.  69,  70.— Terror  and  pity. 

1.  71. — Observe  the  transition.  Eestrained  pathos  to  the 
end. 

The  most  important  fact  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  endeavor- 
ing to  develop  the  pupil's  sympathy  with  whafc  he  describes  is 
this :  imitation  of  sounds,  and  of  gestures,  and  of  movement, 
is  a  very  low  order  of  art.  We  can  not  imitate  thunder,  but  we 
can  show  in  our  voices  the  awe  that  it  inspires.  When  we 
unconsciously  hurry  our  reading  under  the  impulse  the  imagi- 
nation receives  from  contemplating,  let  us  say,  the  rapid 
movement  of  a  cavalry  charge,  we  do  so  not  in  imitation  of, 
but  in  sympathy  with,  the  picture.  This  is  not  primarily  a 
question  of  art,  but  of  nature.  It  is  only  ignorant  teaching 
that  says  to  a  pupil,  *'Is  that  the  way  the  thunder  roars?"  or 
"Read  more  rapidly;  don't  you  see  that  you  are  describing 
the  flight  of  the  horses?"  Furthermore,  if  we  read  slowly  a 
passage  describing  a  funeral  procession,  there  is  no  conscious 


ATMOSPHERE  197 

imitation  of  slowness,  but  a  sympathy  with  the  solemnity, 
stateliness  and  dignity  of  the  occasion. 

A  very  little  observation  will  show  us  whether  the  imitation 
is  conscious  or  sympathetic.  In  the  former  case,  the  voice 
will  be  expressing  merely  speed  or  slowness.  In  the  latter, 
there  will  be  speed  or  slowness,  too,  but  accompanied  by  an 
indefinable  and  yet  recognizable  quality  of  voice,  which  is  the 
expression  of  our  sympathy.     This  is  an  infallible  criterion. 

Lastly,  it  must  be  urged  that  we  give  more  time  to  this 
work.  The  imagination  cannot  be  developed  in  a  week  or  a 
month;  and  unless  there  is  imagination,  there  can  be  no 
sympathy.  It  is  difficult  to  restrain  one's  self  and  not  dwell 
longer  on  the  value  of  the  training  of  the  imagination.  We  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying  that  that  feature  of  education  is  the 
most  neglected.  Such  training  as  is  here  suggested  will,  in 
many  cases,  do  much  to  bring  about  a  more  favorable  condi- 
tion of  affairs.  But  it  takes  time,  and  plenty  of  it.  The 
teacher  should  read  to  the  class  quite  often  such  passages  as 
are  likely  to  stimulate  the  imagination.  Make  the  class  follow 
attentively  and  get  them  to  give  back  the  picture,  as  far  as 
possible,  in  minutest  detail.  Do  this  again  and  again  and 
improvement  must  follow.  Just  in  proportion  as  the  imagi- 
nation is  stimulated  may  we  hope  for  a  better  class  of  reading. 
We  have  no  time  to  teach  any  subject  poorly! 

This  phase  of  the  subject  may  be  presented  to  pupils  in 
some  such  manner  as  this : 

Let  me  tell  you  a  story : 

The  other  day,  a  little  child  came  to  its  mother,  saying,  "Oh, 
mother  I  I  just  saw  a  beautiful  toy  in  the  window :  I  wish  you  would 
buy  it  for  me."  The  sweet  voice  was  full  of  pleading.  The  mother 
was  very  poor,  and  had  hardly  earned  enough  to  pay  for  fuel. 
How  could  she  spare  even  the  few  pennies  for  the  toy?  But  she  said 
to  herself,  *This  is  Christmas  time;"  and  the  tears  came  into  her 
eyes.    The  little  one  saw  the  tears,  and  said:  *'What  are  you  crying 


198  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

for,  mother?"  And  then  the  mother  hugged  her  child  to  her  breast 
and  kissed  her  again  and  again,  saying  over  and  over,  "Because  I 
love  you !    Because  I  love  you ! ' ' 

When  Christmas  morning  dawned  the  little  toy  was  on  the  man- 
tel and  the  child  was  happy.  But  when  the  time  for  breakfast 
came,  the  child  asked  her  mother  why  she  did  not  eat;  and  the 
mother  answered,  "I  am  not  hungry,  darling;  don't  mind  me,"  and 
she  smiled  tenderly  upon  the  sweet  face,  upturned  to  kiss  her. 

After  you  have  read  this  simple  tale  two  or  three  times,  I  think 
you  will  begin  to  feel  some  sympathy  with  the  loving  mother  who 
would  do  without  her  food  to  give  joy  to  her  little  child.  When 
you  read  the  sentences  I  have  put  in  italics,  if  you  have  really  tried 
to  see  the  pictures,  I  am  sure  you  will  feel  some  sympathy  that  will 
make  your  reading  so  different  from  the  reading  of,  let  us  say,  the 
first  sentence  in  this  lesson.  Take  the  line,  "The  sweet  voice  was 
full  of  pleading. "  Can't  you  imagine  some  sweet  child- voice  plead- 
ing for  the  toy?  Well,  then,  listen  to  that  voice,  and  after  you 
have,  then  read,  "The  sweet  voice  was  full  of  pleading."  You  will 
find  that  your  voice  will  be  so  full  of  sympathy  that  it  will  say  not 
only  the  words,  but  also  will  express  love,  and  tenderness,  and  sym- 
pathy. You  will  think,  perhaps,  some  such  thought  as,  "She  was 
such  a  lovely  child  and  she  wanted  the  toy  so  much.  It  made  me 
feel  sorry  to  hear  her  ask  for  it."  There  is  another  sentence  in 
italics  that  I  want  you  to  think  about.  When  you  read,  "And  the 
tears  came  into  her  eyes,"  can  you  not  feel  something  of  the  sadness 
of  that  mother,  as  she  thinks  how  much  she  would  like  to  buy  the 
toy,  and  yet  there  is  nothing  to  buy  it  with?  When  you  express 
your  feeling,  your  voice  will  say,  "And  the  mother's  heart  was  sad 
when  she  thought  that  her  darling  could  have  no  little  gift  at 
Christmas,  when  it  seemed  everyone  should  be  made  happy.  How 
disappointed  the  sweet  one  would  be  when  she  found  out  how 
many  toys  her  playmates  had  while  she  had  not  one  I"  All  these 
thoughts  will  run  through  your  mind  if  you  will  only  think  about 
this  scene  long  enough,  and  then  your  voice  will  express  that  sym- 
pathy with  the  picture  you  are  describing  without  which  you  can 
never  be  a  good  reader.  Let  us  then  close  this  lesson  by  reminding 
you  that  the  best  way  to  develop  our  feelings  as  we  read  is  through 
sympathy. 

There  are  several  other  phrases  and  sentences  in  this  story  that  I 
want  you  to  study  sympathetically  for  to-morrow's  lesson.     Then, 


ATMOSPHERE  199 

after  you  have  grasped  the  idea  of  this  lesson,  be  sure,  in  every 
selection  you  read  hereafter,  that  you  do  not  fail  to  pay  particular 
attention  to  sympathy. 

Let  us,  in  closing  this  long  but  most  vital  discussion, 
direct  attention  in  a  few  words  to  the  psychology  of  the 
atmosphere  of  description.  When  we  are  giving  the  descrip- 
tion for  its  own  sake,  desiring  simply  to  impress  the  picture 
upon  the  audience,  we  should  probably  use  the  normal  quality. 
To  illustrate : 

A  fellow  in  a  market-town, 

Most  musical,  cried  ''Razors!'*  up  and  down, 

And  offered  twelve  for  eighteen  pence ; 
Which  certainly  seemed  wondrous  cheap, 
And  for  the  money  quite  a  heap, 

As  every  man  would  buy,  with  cash  and  sense. 

When,  however,  we  are  somewhat  moved  through  the  contem- 
plation of  what  we  see,  when  it  takes  possession  of  us,  we 
should  be  likely  to  manifest  our  feeling  in  a  suggestive  imita- 
tion of  the  object  described.  See  the  third  stanza  of  The 
Fight  of  Paso  del  Mar,  The  third  stage  is  reached  when  the 
picture  moves  us  to  such  an  extent  that  imitation  and  sug- 
gestion disappear,  and  we  show  merely  our  own  feelings. 
See  lines  69  and  70  of  the  same  poem.  In  reading  these  we 
do  not  utter  the  cry,  nor  do  we  show  the  death  anguish,  but 
our  own  feelings  of  pity  and  perhaps  terror.  There  is  a 
fourth  stage,  in  which  the  conditions  of  the  second  and  third 
are  blended.  Again  we  may  use  the  same  poem  as  an  illus- 
tration. In  lines  53  and  54,  one  could  conceive  a  reader 
partaking  through  sympathy  of  the  passion  of  Bernal,  and 
yet  manifesting  his  own  feeling  of  fear  and  horror  at  the  same 
time. 

It  is  believed  that  this  classification  is  psychologically 
sound,  and  that  it  will  repay  close  study.     It  need  hardly  be 


200  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

added  that  the  attention  of  the  pupil  is  not  to  be  drawn  to 
the  details.     Selections  for  practice  follow  : 

As  thro'  the  land  at  eve  we  went, 

And  pluck' d  the  ripen' d  ears, 
We  fell  out,  my  wife  and  I, 
O  we  fell  out  I  know  not  why. 

And  kiss'd  again  with  tears. 
And  blessings  on  the  falling  out 

That  all  the  more  endears. 
When  we  fall  out  with  those  we  love 

And  kiss  again  with  tears. 
For  when  we  came  where  lies  the  child 

We  lost  in  other  years. 
There  above  the  little  grave, 
O  there  above  the  little  grave, 

We  kiss'd  again  with  tears. 

— The  Princess.    Tennyson. 

The  essence  of  these  exquisite  lines  is  in  their  tender  sim- 
plicity. 

Sweet  and  low,  sweet  and  low, 

Wind  of  the  western  sea. 
Low,  low,  breathe  and  blow, 

Wind  of  the  western  sea  I 
Over  the  rolling  waters  go. 
Come  from  the  dying  moon,  and  blow 

Blow  him  again  to  me ; 
While  my  little  one,  while  my  pretty  one,  sleeps. 

Sleep  and  rest,  sleep  and  rest, 

Father  will  come  to  thee  soon ; 
Rest,  rest,  on  mother's  breast, 

Father  will  come  to  thee  soon ; 
Father  will  come  to  his  babe  in  the  nest. 
Silver  sails  all  out  of  the  west 

Under  the  silver  moon : 
Sleep,  my  little  one,  sleep,  my  pretty  one,  sleep, 

— J6id. 


ATMOSPHERE  201 

Blow  trtunpet,  for  the  world  is  white  with  May; 
Blow  trumpet,  the  long  night  hath  roU'd  away  I 
Blow  thro'  the  living  world — "Let  the  King  reign." 

Shall  Rome  or  Heathen  rule  in  Arthur's  realm? 
Flash  brand  and  lance,  fall  battleaxe  upon  helm. 
Fall  battleaxe,  and  flash  brand!    Let  the  King  reign. 

Strike  for  the  Kiijg,  and  live !  his  knights  have  heard 

That  God  hath  told  the  King  a  secret  word. 

Fall  battleaxe,  and  flash  brand !    Let  the  King  reign. 

blow  trumpet !  he  will  lift  us  from  the  dust. 
Blow  trumpet !  live  the  strength  and  die  the  lust  I 
Clang  battleaxe,  and  clash  brand !    Let  the  King  reign. 

Strike  for  the  king  and  die !  and  if  thou  diest. 
The  King  is  King,  and  ever  wills  the  highest. 
Clang  battleaxe,  and  clash  brand !    Let  the  King  reign. 

Blow,  for  our  Son  is  mighty  in  his  May ! 

Blow,  for  our  Son  is  mightier  day  by  day ! 

Clang  battleaxe,  and  clash  brand  I    Let  the  King  reign. 

The  King  will  follow  Christ,  and  we  the  King 
In  whom  high  God  hath  breathed  a  secret  thing. 
Fall  battleaxe,  and  flash  brand !    Let  the  King  reign. 
— "Knights'  Chorus"  from  The  Coming  of  Arthur.    Tennyson. 

It  would  hardly  be  appropriate  to  imitate  the  blow  of  the 
trumpet ;  and,  striking  as  the  effect  would  be,  it  would  not 
be  the  highest  art  to  have  an  accompaniment  of  clanging  arms. 

But  Rustum  eyed  askance  the  kneeling  youth, 
And  turn'd  away,  and  spake  to  his  own  soul: — 

**Ah  me,  I  muse  what  this  young  fox  may  mean  I 
False,  wily,  boastful,  are  these  Tartar  boys. 
For  if  I  now  confess  this  thing  he  asks, 
And  hide  it  not,  but  say:  'Rustum  is  here!' 
He  will  not  yield  indeed,  nor  quit  our  foes, 
But  he  will  find  some  pretext  not  to  fight. 
And  praise  my  fame,  and  proffer  courteous  gifts, 
A  belt  or  sword  perhaps,  and  go  his  way. 


202  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  on  a  feast  tide,  in  Afrasiab's  hall, 
In  Samarcand,  he  will  arise  and  cry : 
*I  challenged  once,  when  the  two  armies  camp'd 
Beside  the  Oxus,  all  the  Persian  lords 
To  cope  with  me  in  single  fight ;  but  they 
Shrank,  only  Rustum  dared ;  then  he  and  I 
Changed  gifts,  and  went  on  equal  terms  away. ' 
So  will  he  speak,  perhaps,  while  men  applaud ; 
Then  were  the  chiefs  of  Iran  shamed  through  me." 

— Sohrdb  and  Rustum,    M.  Arnold. 

Note  that  when  Eusfciim  utters  the  supposed  words  of 
Sohrab  he  would  still  speak  in  the  musing  mood.  It  is  still 
the  voice  and  manner  of  Eustum,  with  the  faint  suggestion  of 
the  other's  supposed  boast  fulness. 

He  spoke,  and  Sohrab  kindled  at  his  taunts. 
And  he  too  drew  his  sword;  at  once  they  rush'd 
Together,  as  two  eagles  on  one  prey 
Come  rushing  down  together  from  the  clouds, 
One  from  the  east,  one  from  the  west ;  their  shields 
Dash'd  with  a  clang  together,  and  a  din 
Rose,  such  as  that  the  sinewy  woodcutters 
Make  often  in  the  forest's  heart  at  morn, 
Of  hewing  axes,  crashing  trees — such  blows 
Rustum  and  Sohrab  on  each  other  hail'd. 
And  you  would  say  that  sun  and  stars  took  part 
In  that  unnatural  conflict ;  for  a  cloud 
Grew  suddenly  in  heaven,  and  dark'd  the  sun 
Over  the  fighters'  heads ;  and  a  wind  rose 
Under  their  feet,  and  moaning  swept  the  plain. 
And  in  a  sandy  whirlwind  wrapp'd  the  pair. 
In  gloom  they  twain  were  wrapp'd,  and  they  alone; 
For  both  the  on-looking  hosts  on  either  hand 
Stood  in  broad  daylight,  and  the  sky  was  pure. 
And  the  sun  sparkled  on  the  Oxus  stream. 
But  in  the  gloom  they  fought,  with  bloodshot  eyes 
And  laboring  breath :  first  Rustum  struck  the  shield 
Which  Sohrab  held  stiff  out ;  the  steel-spiked  spear 


ATMOSPHERE  203 

Rent  the  tough  plates,  but  fail'd  to  reach  the  skin, 

And  Rustum  pluck' d  it  back  with  angry  groan. 

Then  Sohrab  with  his  sword  smote  Rustum's  helm, 

Nor  clove  its  steel  quite  through ;  but  all  the  crest 

He  shore  away,  and  that  proud  horsehair  plume. 

Never  till  now  defiled,  sank  to  the  dust ; 

And  Rustum  bow'd  his  head;  but  then  the  gloom 

Grew  blacker,  thunder  rumbled  in  the  air, 

And  lightnings  rent  the  cloud ;  and  Ruksh,  the  horse, 

Who  stood  at  hand,  utter' d  a  dreadful  cry ; — 

No  horse's  cry  was  that,  most  like  the  roar 

Of  some  pain'd  desert  lion,  who  all  day 

Hath  trail' d  the  hunter's  javelin  in  his  side, 

And  comes  at  night  to  die  upon  the  sand. 

The  two  hosts  heard  that  cry,  and  quaked  for  fear. 

And  Oxus  curdled  as  it  cross' d  his  stream. 

— Sohrab  and  Rustum.    M.  Arnold. 

The  above  is  an  interesting  illustration.  We  are  not  to  be 
eagles  and  the  wind  and  the  sand,  but  to  manifest  the  awe 
which  overwhelms  us  as  we  describe  the  terrible  struggle  of 
this  father  and  son,  each  ignorant  of  the  identity  of  the  other. 

As  when  some  hunter  in  the  spring  hath  found 
A  breeding  eagle  sitting  on  her  nest. 
Upon  the  craggy  isle  of  a  hill  lake. 
And  pierced  her  with  an  arrow  as  she  rose. 
And  follow' d  her  to  find  her  where  she  fell 
Far  off ; — anon  her  mate  comes  winging  back 
From  hunting,  and  a  great  way  off  descries 
His  huddling  young  left  sole ;  at  that,  he  checks 
His  pinion,  and  with  short  uneasy  sweeps 
Circles  above  his  eyry,  with  loud  screams 
Chiding  his  mate  back  to  her  nest ;  but  she 
Lies  dying,  with  the  arrow  in  her  side. 
In  some  far  stony  gorge  out  of  his  ken, 
A  heap  of  fluttering  feathers — never  more 
Shall  the  lake  glass  her,  flying  over  it ; 
Never  the  black  and  dripping  precipices 


204  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Echo  her  stormy  scream  as  she  sails  by — 
As  that  poor  bird  flies  home,  nor  knows  his  loss, 
So  Rustum  knew  not  his  own  loss,  but  stood 
Over  his  dying  son.  and  knew  him  not. 

— Sohrab  and  Rustum.    M.  Arnold. 

Rustum  has  mortally  wounded  his  son  in  the  combat,  and  now 
the  poet  introduces  the  exquisite  simile  given  above.  It  is  a 
fine  study  in  the  reading  of  description. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

CONTRASTS 

It  is  because  contrasts  are  a  distinct  feature  of  literature 
that  it  is  well  to  make  the  study  of  them  and  their  vocal  pres- 
entation a  feature  of  the  reading  course.  It  is  understood, 
of  course,  that  the  teacher  must  use  his  discretion  as  to  the 
time  when  the  definite  study  of  contrasts  should  be  under- 
taken ;  but  when  clearly  presented  and  discriminatingly  illus- 
trated, even  young  children  can  be  led  to  perceive  the  artistic 
value  of  contrast,  to  enjoy  it  as  art,  and  to  manifest  their 
appreciation  of  it  in  their  reading.  It  should  not  be  difficult 
to  show  young  children  that  Cinderella's  character  is  made  to 
appear  more  lovable  because  it  is  set  over  against  those  of  her 
sisters.  Children  enjoy  such  effects  as  well  as  adults,  when 
pleasantly  and  suggestively  presented  to  them. 

In  literature  there  are  found  illustrations  of  contrast  upon 
every  page.  There  are  contrasts  of  ideas,  contrasts  of  emo- 
tions, contrasts  of  scenes,  contrasts  of  characters,  and  many 
others.  Under  the  head  of  ''The  Central  Idea"  will  be  found 
numerous  examples  of  the  first  class.  We  shall  here  consider 
a  few  illustrations  of  the  other  classes,  while  in  later  pages  will 
be  found  illustrations  for  more  extended  study. 

Contrast  of  emotion  is  admirably  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing scene  from  The  Merchant  of  Venice^  Act  iii.,  Sc.  1: 

Sh YLOCK.  How  now,  Tubal !  what  news  from  Genoa?  hast  thou 
found  my  daughter? 

Tubal.  I  often  came  where  I  did  hear  of  her,  but  cannot  find 
her. 

Shylock.  Why  there,  there,  there,  there !  a  diamond  gone,  cost 
me  two  thousand  ducats  in  Frankfort !    The  curse  never  fell  upon 

205 


206  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

our  nation  till  now ;  I  never  felt  it  till  now : — two  thousand  ducats 
in  that ;  and  other  precious,  precious  jewels.  I  would  my  daughter 
were  dead  at  my  foot,  and  the  jewels  in  her  ear !  would  she  were 
hearsed  at  my  foot,  and  the  ducats  in  her  coffin !  No  news  of  them? 
Why  so; — and  I  know  not  what's  spent  in  the  search:  why,  thou 
loss  upon  loss !  the  thief  gone  with  so  much,  and  so  much  to  find 
the  thief ;  and  no  satisfaction,  no  revenge :  nor  no  ill  luck  stirring 
but  what  lights  on  my  shoulders ;  no  sighs  but  of  my  breathing  ; 
no  tears  but  of  my  shedding. 

Tubal.  Yes,  other  men  have  ill  luck  too.  Antonio,  as  I  heard 
in  Genoa, — 

Shylock.     What,  what,  what?  ill  luck,  ill  luck? 

Tubal.     Hath  an  argosy  cast  away,  coming  from  Tripolis. 

Shylock.     I  thank  God,  I  thank  God !    Is  it  true,  is  it  true? 

Tubal.     I  spoke  with  some  of  the  sailors  that  escaped  the  wreck. 

Shylock.  I  thank  thee,  good  Tubal.  Good  news,  good  news! 
ha,  ha ! — Where?  in  Genoa? 

Tubal.  Your  daughter  spent  in  Genoa,  as  I  heard,  one  night 
fourscore  ducats. 

Shylock.  Thou  stick'st  a  dagger  in  me;  I  shall  never  see  my 
gold  again.     Fourscore  ducats  at  a  sitting !  fourscore  ducats ! 

Tubal.  There  came  divers  of  Antonio's  creditors  in  my  com- 
pany to  Venice,  that  swear  he  cannot  choose  but  break. 

Shylock.  I  am  very  glad  of  it:  I'll  plague  him;  I'll  torture 
him :  I  am  glad  of  it. 

Tubal.  One  of  them  showed  me  a  ring  that  he  had  of  your 
daughter  for  a  monkey. 

Shylock.  Out  upon  her !  Thou  torturest  me.  Tubal :  it  was  my 
turquoise ;  I  had  it  of  Leah  when  I  was  a  bachelor.  I  would  not 
have  given  it  for  a  wilderness  of  monkeys. 

Tubal.     But  Antonio  is  certainly  undone. 

Shylock.  Nay,  that's  true,  that's  very  true.  Go,  Tubal,  fee  me 
an  officer ;  bespeak  him  a  fortnight  before.  I  will  have  the  heart  of 
him,  if  he  forfeit ;  for,  were  he  out  of  Venice,  I  can  make  ;,what 
merchandise  I  will.  Go,  go,  Tubal,  and  meet  me  at  our  synagogue ; 
go,  good  Tubal ;  at  our  synagogue,  Tubal. 

We  cannot  fail  to  remark  how  the  contrast  between  Shylock 's 
emotions  (when  bemoaning  the  loss   of  his    ducats  at  one 


CONTRASTS  207 

moment,  and  cursing  the  daughter  who  has  robbed  him  and 
eloped  with  a  Christian  at  another)  serves  to  bring  out  his 
peculiar  character. 

Contrast  of  character  is  brought  out  in  every  great  play. 
Horatio  and  Hamlet,  Cordelia  and  her  sisters,  Macbeth  and 
his  wife,  suggest  themselves  as  examples.  The  third  act  of 
King  Lear^  where  the  jester's  jibes  are  interpolated  between 
the  fearful  outbursts  of  the  king,  is  a  striking  example  of 
character,  as  well  as  of  emotional  contrast. 

It  may  be  well  to  remark  that  the  two  parts  of  a  contrast 
do  not  always  occur  in  succession.  Do  not  the  last  three  or 
four  speeches  of  Shylock  depend,  for  their  effect,  upon  the  keep- 
ing in  mind  by  the  audience  of  his  emotions  and  bearing  during 
the  former  scenes?  Let  the  audience  forget  these,  and  they  have 
lost  a  most  significant  aesthetic  detail.  Similarly,  when  King 
Kobert  utters  the  speech  beginning,  **Thou  knowest  best," 
the  whole  effect  is  lost  unless  we  bear  in  mind  that  never  for 
three  years  has  his  answer  to  the  angel's  question  been  other 
than,  **I  am,  I  am  the  king." 

The  following  examples  will  afford  good  practice : 

Sheltered  by  the  verdant  shores,  an  hundred  triremes  were  riding 
proudly  at  their  anchors,  their  brazen  beaks  glittering  in  the  sun, 
their  streamers  dancing  in  the  morning  breeze,  while  many  a  shat- 
tered plank  and  timber  gave  evidence  of  desperate  conflicts  with  the 
fleets  of  Rome. — Regulus  to  the  Carthaginians.    Kellogg. 

'^  The  multitude  swayed  to  and  fro  like  a  forest  beneath  a  tempest, 
and  the  rage  and  hate  of  that  tumultuous  throng  vented  itself  in 
groans,  and  curses,  and  yells  of  vengeance.  |(^  But  calm,  cold  and 
immovable  as  the  marble  walls  around  him  stood  the  Roman. — Ibid. 

If  there  be  three  in  all  your  company  dare  face  me  on  the  bloody 
sands,  let  them  come  on.  And  yet  I  was  not  always  thus,  a  hired 
butcher,  a  savage  chief  of  still  more  savage  men !  My  ancestors 
came  from  old  Sparta,  and  settled  among  the  vine-clad  rocks  and 


208  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

citron  groves  of  Syrasella.  My  early  life  ran  quiet  as  the  brooks  by 
which  I  sported ;  and  when  at  noon  I  gathered  the  sheep  beneath 
the  shade,  and  played  upon  the  shepherd's  flute,  there  was  a  friend 
to  join  me  in  the  pastime.  .  .  .  ■  One  evening,  my  grandsire,  an  old 
man,  was  telling  of  Marathon  and  Leuctra,  and  how,  in  ancient 
times,  a  little  band  of  Spartans,  in  a"defile  of  the  mountains,  had 
withstood  a  whole  army.  '  I  did  not  then  know  what  war  was ;  but 
my  cheeks  burned,  and  I  clasped  the  knees  of  that  venerable  man, 
until  my  mother,  parting  the  hair  from  off  my  forehead,  kissed  my 
throbbing  temples  and  bade  me  go  to  rest,  and  think  no  more  of 
those  old  tales  and  savage  wars.  That  very  night  the  Romans 
landed  on  our  coast.  I  saw  the  breast  that  had  nourished  me 
trampled  by  the  hoof  of  the  war-horse,  and  the  bleeding  body  of  my 
father  flung  amidst  the  blazing  rafters  of  our  dwelling ! — Spartacus. 
Kellogg. 

O  Rome,  Rome,  thou  hast  been  a  tender  nurse  to  me !  Ay,  thou 
hast  given  to  that  poor,  gentle,  timid  shepherd  lad,  who  never 
knew  a  harsher  tone  than  a  flute  note,  muscles  of  iron  and  a  heart  of 
flint;  taught  him  to  gaze  into  the  glaring  eyeballs  of  the  fierce 
Numidian  lion,  even  as  a  boy  upon  a  laughing  girl. — Ibid, 

The  shouts  of  revelry  had  died  away. — Ibid, 

The  roar  of  the  lion  had  ceased. — Ibid. 

You  all  do  know  this  mantle :  I  remember 

The  first  time  ever  Caesar  put  it  on ; 

'Twas  on  a  summer's  evening  in  his  tent. 

That  day  he  overcame  the  Nervii. 

Look !  in  this  place  ran  Cassius*  dagger  through. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  2. 

The  selection  entitled  the  "Choric  Song,"  a  part  of 
Tennyson's  The  Lotos-Eaters.,  is  a  fine  study  in  contrast. 
The  speakers  are  the  followers  of  Ulysses,  who  are  debating 
whether  they  shall  remain  in  this  new  found  land  of  the  Lotos 
or  return  to  their  homes.  The  first,  third,  fifth,  and  seventh 
stanzas  are  in  striking  contrast  to  the  others.     The  feelings  of 


CONTRASTS  209 

the  sailors  as  they  alternately  contemplate  their  life  as  it  is 
and  has  been,  in  contrast  with  what  it  might  be  should  they 
remain  here,  are  strikingly  depicted. 

The  subject  of  contrasts  may  be  presented  to  the  class  in 
some  such  manner  as  the  following : 

Have  you  not  noticed  how  much  brighter  the  sunlight  seems  to 
be  after  a  thunder-shower?  how  keenly  we  enjoy  a  victory  after 
defeat  seems  certain?  Why  is  this?  Because  the  clouds  by  their 
blackness  make  us  appreciate  the  sunlight ;  and  the  fear  of  losing 
the  contest  makes  us  doubly  glad  when  we  win.  If  we  had  sun- 
shine all  the  time,  how  monotonous  it  would  be,  and  how  little  we 
should  notice  it !  And  you  must  see  that  if  the  other  side  in  a  con- 
test were  very  weak,  we  should  not  derive  much  pleasure  from  the 
outcome.  All  nature  is  full  of  these  contrasts:  joy  and  sorrow, 
light  and  darkness,  success  and  failure,  are  always  around  us.  So 
literature,  which  deals  with  nature,  contains  these  contrasts,  too. 

In  literature,  the  contrast  is  used  to  impress  upon  us  some  idea 
or  picture  more  completely  than  could  be  done  by  merely  describing 
it.  This  is  done  by  placing  before  us  the  idea  and  its  opposite :  it  is 
like  placing  a  dark  screen  behind  a  white  marble  statue.  This 
being  so,  we  can  easily  see  how  necessary  it  is  for  us  to  recognize 
these  contrasts  in  order  that  we  may  present  them  with  oiu*  voices 
to  the  listeners. 

Let  us  take  a  few  simple  examples.  Our  grandparents  tell  us 
that  it  took  them  sixty  dS,ys  to  cross  the  ocean  from  England  to 
America;  and  now,  we  know,  it  takes  but  six.  The  best  way  to 
show  how  great  an  advance  this  century  has  made  in  boat-building 
would  be  by  contrasting  the^past  and  the  present.  We  might  say : 
"It  took  my  grandparents  sixty  days,  in  a  sailing  vessel,  to  cross  the 
ocean,  but  now  we  go  by  steam  in  six. "  * 

Again:  "Last  week  I  was  sleighing  and  skating  in  Minneapolis; 
but  to-day  I  am  plucking  violets  and  japonicas  in  the  gardens  of 
Savannah." 

In  both  examples  you  observe  that  the  concluding  idea  of  the 
sentence  is  made  more  striking  because  of  the  contrast  it  makes 
with  the  first  part.  Be  sure  to  bear  this  in  mind.  A  contrast  is 
made  up  of  two  ideas,  and  you  must  have  both  of  them  in  mind  or 
your  reading  will  be  a  failure.     Do  you  not  see  that  this  is  true?    If 


210  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

you  were  to  say  "I  am  plucking  violets  in  Savannah  to-day,"  there 
would  be  very  little  emotion  shown  in  your  voice :  you  would  be 
making  just  an  ordinary  statement.  But  if  you  were  thinking  of 
the  great  change  you  had  made;  how  strange  it  was  that  you 
should  be  in  the  midst  of  winter  one  week  and  in  the  midst  of  spring 
the  next,  then  the  contrast  would  be  such  a  pleasant  one  that  your 
voice  would  be  full  of  joy,  and  your  joy  would  be  largely  the  result 
of  the  contrast.  If  you  had  violets  all  the  year  round,  perhaps  you 
would  hardly  notice  them. 

Here  are  two  more  examples  of  contrast,  more  difficult  to 
express,  but  more  beautiful  than  the  others. 

Imagine  a  noble  warrior  whose  whole  life  is  devoted  to  good 
deeds.  Imagine  him  as  he  speaks  the  following  words  descriptive 
of  the  old  time  tournament.  Then  imagine  how  grateful  he  would 
feel  for  the  relief  after  the  fierce  struggle,  a  relief  so  beautifully 
described  by  the  author: 

My  good  blade  carves  the  casques  of  men, 

My  tough  lance  thrusteth  sure. 
My  strength  is  as  the  strength  of  ten. 

Because  my  heart  is  pure. 
The  shattering  trumpet  shrilleth  high, 

The  hard  brands  shiver  on  the  steel, 
The  splintered  spear-shafts  crack  and  fly, 

The  horse  and  rider  reel. 
They  reel,  they  roll,  in  clanging  lists. 

And  when  the  tide  of  combat  stands, 
Perfume  and  flowers  fall  in  showers. 

That  lightly  rain  from  ladies'  hands. 

— Sir  Galahad.    Tennyson. 

In  this  next  example,  we  have  the  picture  of  a  king  who  is  pun- 
ished for  his  pride  by  being  deprived  of  all  his  power,  wealth,  and 
friends.  See  how  powerful  the  contrast  he  makes  as  he,  who  should 
be  master,  rides  in  mock  state  amid  the  splendor  of  his  courtiers. 
The  word  *'he"  in  the  first  line  does  not  refer  to  the  king,  but  to 
another. 

Then  he  departed  with  them  o'er  the  sea, 

Into  the  lovely  land  of  Italy, 

Whose  loveliness  was  more  resplendent  made 


CONTRASTS  211 

By  the  mere  passing  of  that  cavalcade, 
With  plumes,  and  cloaks,  and  housings,  and  the  stir 
Of  jeweled  bridle  and  of  golden  spur. 
And  lo !  among  the  menials,  in  mock  state, 
Upon  a  piebald  steed,  with  shambling  gait. 
His  cloak  of  foxtails  flapping  in  the  wind. 
The  solemn  ape  demurely  perched  behind. 
King  Robert  rode,  making  huge  merriment 
In  all  the  country  towns  through  which  they  went. 
— King  Robert  of  Sicily.     Longfellow. 

Let  us  remember  that  contrasts  are  of  two  kinds :  logical 
and  emotional.  The  former  are  largely  antitheses,  such  as 
*'I  said  John,  not  Charles,"  and  will  need  but  casual  atten- 
tion. The  pupils  will  perceive  them  without  difficulty.  The 
other  class  need  much  care.  Perhaps  the  most  important  fact 
that  the  teacher  must  bear  in  mind  concerning  these,  is  that 
their  successful  rendition  depends  upon  the  pupils'  keeping 
both  parts  of  the  contrasts  in  mind,  the  first  serving  as  a 
backgrounds  or  reliefs  for  the  second.  Just  as  contrasts  in* 
literature  afford  variety  and  relief,  so  the  reading  aloud  of 
contrasts  gives  great  variety  in  vocal  expression. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


CLIMAXES 


In  Genung's  Practical  Rhetoric  we  find  the  following 
definition  of  Climax:  ''This  figure,  which  depends  upon  the 
law  that  a  thought  must  have  progress^  is  the  ordering  of 
thought  and  expression  so  that  there  shall  be  uniform  and  evi- 
dent increase  in  significance,  or  interest,  or  intensity." 

An  excellent  illustration  of  increase  in  Significance  is 
found  in  the  following  speech  from  Regulus : 

The  artisan  had  forsaken  his  shop,  the  judge  his  tribunal,  the 
priest  the  sanctuary,  and  even  the  stern  stoic  had  come  forth  from 
his  retirement. 

Here  the  author  desires  to  show  that  the  return  of  Regulus 
had  thrown  all  Carthage  into  a  state  of  intense  excitement. 
The  artisan,  who  could  ill  afford  to  lose  his  day's  labor,  had 
left  his  shop  to  join  the  throng  that  was  taking  its  way  to  the 
great  square  of  the  city.  The  judge,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
administer  justice,  could  not  refrain  from  joining  the  crowd. 
The  priest,  whose  sacred  office  was  to  tend  the  altars  of  the 
gods,  he  too,  for  once,  was  neglecting  his  duty.  And  even 
the  stern  stoic,  whose  philosophy  taught  him  to  remain 
unmoved  under  any  and  all  conditions  of  life,  even  he,  per- 
force, must  mix  with  the  multitude  thronging  the  Car- 
thaginian streets.  Each  succeeding  clause  presents  to  us  a 
more  unusual  disturbance  of  the  normal  condition  of 
Carthaginian  affairs ;  and  the  climax  is  reached  when  even  the 
man  whose  whole  philosophy  teaches  him  never  to  be  moved, 
is  impelled  to  do  violence  to  his  life-long  convictions. 

213 


CLIMAXES  213 

In  tlie  following  lines  from  Lord  Chatham's  speech  we 
have  an  illustration  of  the  climax  of  Intensity : 

If  I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an  Englishman,  while  a  foreign 
troop  was  landed  in  my  country,  I  never  would  lay  down  my  arms  I 
Never  I    Never !    Never  I 

The  verbal  expression  does  not  progress ;  and  yet  the  emotion 
increasing  in  force,  as  the  mind  dwells  upon  the  thought, 
finds  vent  in  increasing  intensity  of  vocal  expression.  It  may 
be  well  to  note  that  by  increasing  the  intensity  is  not  neces- 
sarily meant  greater  loudness  or  higher  pitch;  but  greater 
intensity  of  feeling,  which  may  result  in  greater  loudness  or 
higher  pitch,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  in  deeper,  more  con- 
trolled, or  more  dignified  expression. 

We  have  thus  far  been  considering  simple  and  palpable 
forms  of  climaxes.  Let  us  turn  now  to  the  examination  of 
the  more  difficult  and  complex.  The  following  speech  is 
uttered  by  Marullus,  one  of  the  tribunes,  in  the  first  scene  of 
the  first  act  of  Julius  Caesar,  We  recall  the  fact  that  Marul- 
lus appears  to  be  greatly  surprised  that  the  citizens  of  Rome 
should  dress  themselves  in  holiday  garb  and  make  holiday  to 
celebrate  the  return  of  the  victorious  Caesar.  He  inquires  of 
them  what  is  their  purpose  in  thus  celebrating;  and,  after 
considerable  bantering,  one  of  the  crowd  remarks  that  they 
make  holiday  to  see  Caesar,  and  to  rejoice  in  his  triumph, 
whereupon  Marullus  speaks : 

Wherefore  rejoice?    What  conquest  brings  he  home? 

What  tributaries  follow  him  to  Rome, 

To  grace  in  captive  bonds  his  chariot  wheels? 

You  blocks,  you  stones,  you  worse  than  senseless  things ! 

O  you  hard  hearts,  you  cruel  men  of  Rome, 

Knew  you  not  Pompey?    Many  a  time  and  oft 

Have  you  climb'd  up  to  walls  and  battlements. 

To  towers  and  windows,  yea,  to  chimney -tops, 


214  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Your  infants  in  your  arms,  and  there  have  sat 
The  livelong  day,  with  patient  expectation. 
To  see  great  Pompey  pass  the  streets  of  Rome: 
And  when  you  saw  his  chariot  but  appear, 
Have  you  not  made  an  universal  shout, 
That  Tiber  trembled  underneath  her  banks, 
To  hear  the  replication  of  your  sounds 
Made  in  her  concave  shores? 
And  do  you  now  put  on  your  best  attire? 
And  do  you  now  cull  out  a  holiday? 
And  do  you  now  strew  flowers  in  his  way, 
That  comes  in  triumph  over  Pompey's  blood? 
Be  gone ! 

Run  to  your  houses,  fall  upon  your  knees, 
Pray  to  the  gods  to  intermit  the  plague 
That  needs  must  light  on  this  ingratitude. 

The  first  three  ideas  are  arranged  in  order  of  climax.  It  may 
be  termed  a  climax  of  Significance.  But  we  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that,  throughout  the  speech,  as  the  emotion 
of  MaruUus  increases,  we  shall  have  a  climax  in  Intensity. 
In  line  4,  we  have  another  climax,  reaching  its  height  on  the 
word  '* worse."  Then,  with  **many  a  time  and  oft,"  begins 
another  climax,  which,  with  occasional  diminutions,  continues 
to  "shores."  In  the  next  four  lines  we  have  a  climax  which 
is  intensified  by  contrast.  The  word  ''now"  is  full  of  reproof 
and  condemnation ;  and  by  the  time  the  speaker  utters  the 
words  "over  Pompey's  blood"  he  is  so  overcome  with  the 
enormity  of  the  crime  that,  with  the  utmost  fervor,  he  urges 
the  mob  to  run  to  their  houses  and  pray  to  the  gods  to  refrain 
from  visiting  upon  their  heads  the  rightful  punishment  of 
their  ingratitude. 

This  cursory  analysis  of  the  speech  has  shown  us  that  while 
there  is  a  steady  increase  in  intensity  from  the  first  word  to 
the  last,  there  are,  besides,  many  smaller  climaxes  in  Signifi- 
cance.    We  find  these  in  lines  1  to  3,  line  4,  lines  6  to  16, 


CLIMAXES  215 

lines  17  to  20,  lines  22  to  24.  It  may  be  said  in  passing,  that 
the  climax  in  lines  17  to  20  forms  a  very  interesting  study. 
"Best  attire,"  "holiday,"  "strew  flowers  in  his  way,"  are 
plainly  arranged  in  order  of  climax,  while  the  three  "now's" 
are  evidently  an  anti-climax.  The  first  "now"  is  most  sig- 
nificant, while  the  last  is  of  very  little  importance.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fact  of  strewing  flowers  in  Caesar's  way  is 
clearly  a  very  much  more  striking  mark  of  their  ingratitude 
than  that  of  merely  putting  on  their  best  attire. 

Just  as  in  the  long  paragraph  that  we  have  analyzed  we 
find  a  climax,  so  in  a  drama  or  in  a  poem  we  find  this  steady 
progression.  That  scene  which  is  the  climax  of  the  action  is 
gradually  led  up  to  by  successive  steps,  each  one  more  signifi- 
cant and  intense  than  the  preceding.  The  artist  is  careful  not 
to  destroy  his  effect  by  anti-climax,  for  to  do  so  would  be  to 
lessen  the  interest  of  the  audience,  and  consequently  defeat 
the  very  purpose  of  the  drama  or  story.  The  play  of  The 
Merchant  of  Venice  illustrates  this.  Each  scene  manifestly 
increases  the  intensity  which  finally  culminates  in  the  trial 
scene,  after  which  the  play,  being  a  comedy,  descends  to  a 
restful  close  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  act. 

In  recitation  the  ordinary  climax  of  Significance  presents 
no  great  difficulty  for  the  reader.  As  soon  as  he  appreciates 
the  fact  of  the  growth  in  significance,  he  will  manifest  that 
increase  in  greater  loudness  or  intensity,  or  increase  of  passion. 
It  may  be  well  to  repeat  that  the  increase  need  not  be  in  loud- 
ness, nor  is  it  necessary  that  the  pitch  of  the  voice  be  raised; 
but  there  will  unquestionably  be  some  form  of  climax  in 
the  expression.  The  difficulty  begins  when  the  climax  is 
made  up  of  smaller  climaxes,  as  in  the  example  from  Julius 
Caesar^  or  when  a  climax  is,  so  to  speak,  one  of  considerable 
length.  In  the  latter  case,  the  utmost  care  must  be  used  to 
husband  one's  resources,  that  when  the  moment  of  intensest 


216  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

feeling  is  reached,  there  shall  be  sufficient  power  to  produce 
the  required  result.  One  of  the  most  striking  defects  in 
oratory,  recitation,  and  acting,  is  the  inability  to  present 
climaxes  artistically.  Either  from  a  failure  to  perceive  their 
literary  value,  or  from  lack  of  control,  or  other  limitations  of 
technique,  the  effect  is  often  spoiled,  with  most  disastrous 
results.  The  student,  then,  is  advised  to  determine  carefully 
that  point  of  a  passage  or  story  where  the  strongest  effect  is  to 
be  made,  and  then  to  be  careful  to  subordinate  all  else  to  this. 

GEADATIO]Sr 

This  feature  of  literary  art  may  appropriately  be  considered 
in  connection  with  Climax.  The  law  of  gradation  demands 
that  the  progress  from  the  smaller  to  the  greater  be  gradual 
and  regular.  In  the  musical  and  elocutionary  arts  this  is  by 
no  means  an  easy  task,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  reserve 
the  strongest  effects  for  the  culmination  of  the  climax.  This 
is  not  difficult  when  the  climax  is  short,  but  in  the  longer 
examples  one  requires  all  the  art  at  his  command. 

To  assist  in  rendering  a  climax  artistically,  let  the  reader 
bear  in  mind  the  end  from  the  beginning.  Then  the  tempta- 
tion to  overdo  the  less  important  details  will  be  reduced. 

Antony.     O,  pardon  me,  thou  bleeding  piece  of  earth, 
That  I  am  meek  and  gentle  with  these  butchers! 
Thou  art  the  ruins  of  the  noblest  man 
That  ever  liv^d  in  the  tide  of  times. 
Woe  to  the  hand  that  shed  this  costly  blood  I 
Over  thy  wounds  now  do  I  prophesy, — 
Which,  like  dumb  mouths,  do  ope  their  ruby  lips 
To  beg  the  voice  and  utterance  of  my  tongue, — 
A  curse  shall  light  upon  the  limbs  of  men ; 
Domestic  fury  and  fierce  civil  strife, 
Shall  cumber  all  the  parts  of  Italy ; 
Blood  and  destruction  shall  be  so  in  use. 


CLIMAXES  217 

And  dreadful  objects  so  familiar, 
That  mothers  shall  but  sm.ile  when  they  behold 
Their  infants  quartered  with  the  hands  of  war. 
All  pity  choked  with  custom  of  fell  deeds ; 
And  Caesar's  spirit,  ranging  for  revenge. 
With  Ate  by  his  side,  come  hot  from  hell, 
Shall  in  these  confines  with  a  monarch's  voice 
Cry  "Havoc!"  and  let  slip  the  dogs  of  war; 
That  this  foul  deed  shall  smell  above  the  earth 
With  carrion  men  groaning  for  burial. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  1. 

Cassius.     I  know  that  virtue  to  be  in  you,  Brutus, 
As  well  as  I  do  know  your  outward  favor. 
Well,  honor  is  the  subject  of  my  story. — 
I  cannot  tell  what  you  and  other  men 
Think  of  this  life ;  but  for  my  single  self, 
I  had  as  lief  not  be,  as  live  to  be 
In  awe  of  such  a  thing  as  I  myself. 
I  was  born  free  as  Caesar;  so  were  you: 
We  both  have  fed  as  well,  and  we  can  both 
Endure  the  winter's  cold  as  well  as  he; 
For  once,  upon  a  raw  and  gusty  day, 
The  troubled  Tiber  chafing  with  her  shores, 
Caesar  said  to  me,  "Barest  thou,  Cassius,  now 
Leap  in  with  me  into  this  angry  flood. 
And  swim  to  yonder  point?" — Upon  the  word, 
Accoutred  as  I  was,  I  plunged  in. 
And  bade  him  follow :  so,  indeed,  he  did. 
The  torrent  roared,  and  we  did  buffet  it 
With  lusty  sinews,  throwing  it  aside 
And  stemming  it  with  hearts  of  controversy; 
But  ere  we  could  arrive  the  point  proposed, 
Caesar  cried,  "Help  me,  Cassius,  or  I  sink." 
I,  as  ^neas,  our  great  ancestor, 
Did  from  the  flames  of  Troy  upon  his  shoulder 
The  old  Anchises  bear,  so  from  the  waves  of  Tiber 
Did  I  the  tired  Caesar.     And  this  man 
Is  now  become  a  god ;  and  Cassius  is 
A  wretched  creature,  and  must  bend  his  body 


218  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

If  Caesar  carelessly  but  nod  on  him. 

He  had  a  fever  when  he  was  in  Spain, 

And  when  the  fit  was  on  him,  I  did  mark 

How  he  did  shake:  'tis  true,  this  god  did  shake: 

His  coward  lips  did  from  their  color  fly ; 

And  that  same  eye,  whose  bend  doth  awe  the  world, 

Did  lose  his  luster.     I  did  hear  him  groan ; 

Ay,  and  that  tongue  of  his,  that  bade  the  Romans 

Mark  him,  and  write  his  speeches  in  their  books, 

Alas  it  cried,  "Give  me  some  drink,  Titinius," 

As  a  sick  girl.     Ye  gods,  it  doth  amaze  me, 

A  man  of  such  a  feeble  temper  should 

So  get  the  start  of  the  majestic  world. 

And  bear  the  palm  alone.  [Shout.     Flourish. 

Brutus.  Another  general  shout ! 

I  do  believe  that  these  applauses  are 
For  some  new  honors  that  are  heaped  on  Caesar. 

Cassius.     Why,  man,  he   doth    bestride  the  narrow 
world, 
Like  a  Colossus ;  and  we  petty  men 
Walk  under  his  huge  legs,  and  peep  about 
To  find  ourselves  dishonorable  graves. 
Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of  their  fates : 
The  fault,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars. 
But  in  ourselves,  that  we  are  underlings. 
Brutus,  and  Caesar :  what  should  be  in  that  Caesar? 
Why  should  that  name  be  sounded  more  than  yours? 
Write  them  together,  yours  is  as  fair  a  name ; 
Sound  them,  it  doth  become  the  mouth  as  well ; 
Weigh  them,  it  is  as  heavy ; — conjure  with  'em, 
Brutus  will  start  a  spirit  as  soon  as  Caesar. 
Now,  in  the  names  of  all  the  gods  at  once, 
Upon  what  meat  doth  this  our  Caesar  feed. 
That  he  is  grown  so  great?    Age,  thou  art  shamed ! 
Rome,  thou  hast  lost  the  breed  of  noble  bloods ! 
When  went  there  by  an  age,  since  the  great  flood. 
But  it  was  famed  with  more  than  with  one  man? 
When  could  they  say,  till  now,  that  talked  of  Rome, 
That  her  wide  walls  encompassed  but  one  man? 


CLIMAXES  219 

Now  is  it  Rome  indeed,  and  room  enough, 

When  there  is  in  it  but  one  only  man. 

O,  you  and  I  have  heard  our  fathers  say, 

There  was  a  Brutus  once  that  would  have  brooked 

The  eternal  devil  to  keep  his  state  in  Rome 

As  easily  as  a  king. 

— Julius  Caesar,  Act  i.,  Sc.  2. 

In  the  preceding  illustration  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
description  of  the  rescue  of  Caesar  from  the  Tiber  is  only  the 
beginning  of  Cassius'  plan;  and  that  his  object  is  to  cite 
the  illustrations  of  Caesar's  weakness,  and  finally  to  lead  up  to 
that  subtle  flattery  with  which  the  "Instigation"  speech  closes. 

It  is  an  outrage  to  bind  a  Roman  citizen ;  to  scourge  him  is  an 
atrocious  crime;  to  put  him  to  death  is  almost  parricide;  but  to 
crucify  him — what  shall  I  call  it? 

I  know  it,  I  concede  it,  I  confess  it,  I  proclaim  it. 

When  a  wind  from  the  lands  they  had  ruin'd  awoke  from  sleep. 
And  the  water  began  to  heave  and  the  weather  to  moan. 

If  there  be  one  among  you  who  can  say  that  ever,  in  public  fight 
or  private  brawl,  my  actions  did  belie  my  tongue,  let  him  stand 
forth  and  say  it.  If  there  be  three  in  all  your  company  dare  face 
me  on  the  bloody  sands,  let  them  come  on. 

O  comrades,  warriors,  Thracians, — if  we  must  fight,  let  us  fight 
for  ourselves!  If  we  must  slaughter,  let  us  slaughter  our  oppressors! 
If  we  must  die,  let  it  be  under  the  clear  sky,  by  the  bright  water, 
in  noble,  honorable  battle  I 

Next  morning,  waking  with  the  day's  first  beam, 
He  said  within  himself,  *'It  was  a  dream!" 
But  the  straw  rustled  as  he  turned  his  head. 
There  were  the  cap  and  bells  beside  his  bed ; 
Around  him  rose  the  bare,  discolored  walls. 
Close  by,  the  steeds  were  champing  in  their  stalls, 


220  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  in  the  corner,  a  revolting  shape, 
Shivering  and  chattering,  sat  the  wretched  ape. 
It  was  no  dream ;  the  world  he  loved  so  much 
Had  turned  to  dust  and  ashes  at  his  touch ! 

Have  I  not,  since  first  my  youthful  arms  could  wield  a  spear, 
conquered  your  armies,  fired  your  towns,  and  dragged  your  generals 
at  my  chariot  wheels? 

Remember  that  Greece  had  her  Alexander,  Rome  her  Caesar, 
England  her  Cromwell,  France  her  Bonaparte,  and  that,  if  we  would 
escape  the  rock  on  which  they  split,  we  must  avoid  their  errors. 

*'But,  Mr.  Speaker,  we  have  a  right  to  tax  America."  Oh, 
inestimable  right!  Oh,  wonderful,  transcendent  right!  the  asser- 
tion of  which  has  cost  this  country  thirteen  provinces,  six  islands, 
one  hundred  thousand  lives,  and  seventy  millions  of  money. 

This  last  example  is  a  peculiar  one.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances thirteen  provinces  would  be  more  yaluable  than  six 
islands,  and  surely  one  hundred  thousand  lives  are  more  valu- 
able than  seventy  millions  of  money.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
figures  in  the  last  three  phrases  certainly  rise  to  a  climax. 
On  the  whole,  I  think  it  better  to  regard  this  as  an  oratorical 
climax,  understanding  Burke  not  to  have  had  in  mind  any- 
thing more  than  to  present  the  losses  of  England,  as  each 
occurred  to  him,  while  his  emotion  and  indignation  rise  with 
each  enumeration. 

The  climax  is  a  very  important  feature  in  reading.  It 
stimulates  the  imagination  and  feelings,  and,  through  them, 
the  voice.  It  should  be  remembered  that  no  definite  method 
of  expressing  a  climax  vocally  can  be  laid  down.  In  one  case 
the  pitch  may  rise ;  in  another  it  may  fall.  Sometimes  the 
force  increases;  at  other  times  it  diminishes.  Hence,  th« 
admonition  so  often  given  must  be  repeated:    Do  ixot  tell 


CLIMAXES  221 

the  pupil  to  raise  his  voice,  or  to  speak  louder ^^  Work  at  his 
imagination.  If  there  be  a  climax  there,  it  will  come  out  in 
his  expression. 

Frequent  drills  in  climax  will  do  much  to  give  flexibility, 
power,  and  range  to  the  voice.  And  that,  too,  in  a  far  more 
rational  way  than  through  any  mechanical  exercises  in  pitch 
and  force. 

The  following  plan  of  presenting  climaxes  to  classes  has 
been  found  extremely  helpful : 

Read  the  following  sentence  carefully  to  yourself.  Notice  each 
clause,  and  try  to  discover  if  there  is  not  something  here  that  we 
have  not  had  before.  I  want  to  ask  you  not  to  read  more  than  that 
sentence  until  you  have  studied  over  it  for  some  time.  **It  is  an 
outrage  to  bind  a  Roman  citizen ;  to  scoiu*ge  him  is  an  atrocious 
crime ;  to  put  him  to  death  is  almost  parricide ;  but  to  crucify  him 
— what  shall  I  call  it?" 

-We  have  here  another  method  used  by  writers  and  speakers  for 
making  an  idea  more  striking.  In  this  case,  the  speaker  is  con- 
demning one  who  has  caused  the  crucifixion  of  a  Roman.  The 
orator  desires  to  impress  upon  the  judges  the  seriousness  of  the 
offense.  How  does  he  do  it?  Instead  of  speaking  at  once  about  the 
crucifying  of  the  victim,  he  begins  by  showing  that  a  far  less  serious 
punishment  was  a  grave  offense  against  the  Roman  law.  He  says, 
"It  is  an  outrage  to  bind  a  Roman  citizen."  Then  he  goes  another 
step,  saying:  "To  scourge  him  is  an  atrocious  crime."  Worse  still: 
"To  put  him  to  death"  (by  any  means)  "is almost  parricide."  And 
now,  having  shown  that  less  extreme  methods  of  punishment  were 
great  crimes,  the  orator  is  ready  for  his  final  statement:  "But  to 
crucify  him — what  shall  I  call  it?"  In  other  words,  the  speaker 
seems  to  have  exhausted  his  vocabulary  in  giving  names  to  lower 
crimes ;  when  he  comes  to  a  name  with  which  to  describe  the  crime 
of  crucifying  a  Roman,  he  finds  his  vocabulary  does  not  have  one 
strong  enough.  Do  you  not  see  how  powerful  an  effect  such  an 
arrangement  of  clauses  must  have?  It  is  much  stronger  than  if  the 
speaker  had  said  merely,  "I  know  no  word  to  describe  the  crime  of 
crucifying  a  Roman  citizen." 

Analyze  the  following  sentence,  and  explain  how  the  thought  is 


222  BEADING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

made  more  striking  by  this  kind  of  arrangement.  "I  know  it,  I 
concede  it,  I  confess  it,  I  proclaim  it. ' ' 

This  method  of  increasing  the  effect  is  called  climax.  When- 
ever, for  any  reason,  a  speaker  or  writer  keeps  on  adding  thought 
to  thought,  making  each  succeeding  idea  stronger  than  the  preced- 
ing, we  have  a  climax.  Although  you  may  never  have  called  it  by 
this  name  you  have  used  it  many  times.  If  you  were  determined  to 
do  a  certain  thing  you  might  say,  *'I  can  do  it,  I  will  do  it,  I  must 
do  it."  Well,  that  is  a  climax.  Or  you  might  say,  "You  can't  have 
it  for  ten  dollars,  for  fifty  dollars,  for  a  hundred  dollars."  That  is 
another  climax. 

Note  this  example:  *'If  I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an  English- 
man, while  a  foreign  troop  was  landed  in  my  country,  I  never 
would  lay  down  my  arms!  never!  never!  never!"  This,  too,  is  a 
climax,  each  of  the  last  three  "  never 's"  being  stronger  than  the 
preceding.  If  you  will  put  yourself  in  the  position  of  the  speaker, 
you  will  soon  feel  that  each  "never"  after  the  first  is  the  result  of 
stronger,  more  intense  feeling.  If  you  will  think  of  it  in  this  way 
you  will  notice  the  effect  in  your  expression. 

We  shall  close  this  lesson  with  two  illustrations.  Your  teacher 
will  tell  you  the  story  from  which  these  extracts  are  taken,  and  then 
you  will  prepare  them  very  carefully,  taking  particular  pains  to 
note  the  climax  in  each. 

When  a  wind  from  the  lands  they  had  ruin'd  awoke  from  sleep, 

And  the  water  began  to  heave  and  the  weather  to  moan, 

And  or  ever  that  evening  ended  a  great  gale  blew, 

And  a  wave  like  a  wave  that  is  raised  by  an  earthquake  grew. 

Till  it  smote  on  their  hulls  and  their  sails  and  their  masts  and  their 

flags, 
And  the  whole  sea  plunged  and  fell  on  the  shot- shatter 'd  navy  of 

Spain, 
And  the  little  Revenge  herself  went  down  by  the  island  crags, 
To  be  lost  evermore  in  the  main. 

— r/ie  Revenge.    Tennyson. 

And  thro'  the  centuries  let  a  people's  voice 
In  full  acclaim, 
A  people's  voice, 


CLIMAXES  223 

The  proof  and  echo  of  all  human  fame, 
A  people's  voice,  when  they  rejoice 
At  c\vic  revel  and  pomp  and  game, 
Attest  their  great  commander's  claim 
With  honor,  honor,  honor,  honor  to  him, 
Eternal  honor  to  his  name. 
— Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.    Tennyson. 


CHAPTEE    XV 

COI^CLUDII^G  EEMARKS  Oi^  METHOD 

In  taking  leave  of  the  pedagogy  of  the  subject  it  may  be 
profitable  to  review  some  of  the  principal  features  of  the 
method  advocated,  and  add  a  few  hints  on  minor  topics  not 
treated  elsewhere. 

The  method  herein  laid  down  aims  to  present  one  prin- 
ciple at  a  time ;  calls  for  specific  preparation  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils ;  urges  that  there  be  definite  grading  of  the  difficulties 
encountered  by  children  in  learning  to  read ;  advises  strongly 
against  calling  their  attention  to  the  vocal  technique  of 
expression;  and  lastly,  holds  out  the  hope  that  the  impression 
will  eventually  find  an  outlet  in  true  expression. 

As  at  present  taught,  no  distinction  is  drawn,  in  reading, 
between  the  easy  and  the  difficult,  the  simple  and  the  complex. 
We  trust  that  in  the  suggestions  of  this  book  will  be  found  at 
any  rate  a  partial  solution  of  the  difficulty. 

It  should  be  impressed  upon  pupils  from  the  outset 
that  they  are  studying  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  others 
that  find  expression  in  words  upon  the  printed  page.  They 
must  discover  the  thoughts  behind  the  words  and  then 
express  them ;  that  is  all  there  is  to  reading. 

While  it  is  believed  that  the  order  of  the  steps  as  here  out- 
lined is  a  rational  one,  it  is  not  claimed  that  this  order  is  hard 
and  fixed.  In  advanced  classes,  where  the  method  has  not 
been  used  in  the  lower  grades,  the  teacher  should  endeavor  to 
discover  the  particular  weakness  of  his  pupils,  and  use  with 
them  the  step  most  likely  to  produce  the  desired  effect.  Or 
if  it  is  thought  advisable,  he  may  start  with  the  first  step  and 

S24 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS  ON  METHOD  225 

cover  all  the  ground  in  one  grade  as  fast  as  the  pupils  can 
absorb  the  spirit  of  each  step.  But  it  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  carelessness  in  reading  is  a  habit  not  easily  eradicated; 
and,  further,  that  because  a  pupil  satisfactorily  prepares  a 
lesson  in,  let  us  say,  grouping,  he  will  not  necessSxily  have 
formed  the  habit  of  grouping  correctly.  We  are  dealing  with 
complicated  psychical  phenomena,  and  until  the  eye,  the 
memory,  the  voice,  in  fact,  all  the  elements  of  expression  are 
thoroughly  co-ordinated,  we  are  in  constant  danger  of  error. 

The  time  deemed  necessary  in  public  schools  to  complete 
all  the  steps,  is  about  two  years,  beginning  with  the  grade 
third  or  fourth  below  the  highest.  Before  the  pupils  reach 
that  grade,  the  sole  effort  of  the  teacher  should  be  directed  to 
making  the  reading  vital  and  meaningful.  If  this  is  done  the 
work  of  subsequent  teachers  will  be  relatively  easy. 

Avoid,  and  the  admonition  is  repeated  once  more,  talking 
to  the  pupils  about  inflection,  pause,  and  the  like.  These 
are  instinctive  manifestations  of  mental  states,  and  will 
appear  when  the  conditions  are  right. 

Let  the  teacher  not  follow  slavishly  the  order  of  lessons  in 
the  regular  reading  book.  Let  him  choose  such  selections  or 
parts  of  them  as  offer  the  best  opportunity  for  practice  where 
the  class  most  needs  it.  Let  him  further  find  extracts  from 
outside  sources  for  class  use.  These  may  be  written  on  the 
board  or  mimeographed. 

It  has  been  said  that  we  must  have  a  technique  if  we  would 
read.  This  may  be  granted ;  but  it  is  equally  to  be  granted 
that  the  principal  technique  is  mental,  and,  moreover,  that, 
in  the  public  schools,  our  aim  is  to  produce  simple,  natural, 
expressive  readers,  not  artistic  actors  and  orators.  There  is, 
then,  no  necessity  for  drills  on  inflection,  time,  modulation, 
and  the  like,  as  such.  Give  the  pupil  all  the  drill  that  is 
necessary  on  the  states  of  mind  producing  these  effects,  but  let 


226  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

us  never  separate  the  technique  from  the  mental  condition 
that  will  find  instinctive  expression  in  that  technique.* 
Expression  grows  through  expressing.  If  we  v/ill  bear  this  in 
mind,  and  present  the  right  thoughts  and  emotions  to  be 
expressed,'  at  the  right  time,  there  should  and  will  be  no 
difficulty. 

It  is  suggested  that,  perhaps  once  a  week,  short  extracts  be 
committed  and  recited  before  the  class.  There  need  be  no 
gesture,  just  simple  saying.  Such  a  procedure  will  give  the 
pupil  confidence,  develop  his  earnestness,  improve  his  voice, 
and  in  every  way  affect  for  good  the  reading  spirit  of  the 
class.  Where  a  suitable  selection  can  be  found,  it  will  be  well 
to  give  a  stanza  to  each  pupil.  A  word  may  be  added  about 
the  recitations  that  form  so  large  a  part  of  the  closing  exercises 
in  our  schools.  If  the  recitation  were  an  honest,  legitimate 
presentation  of  the  reading  as  taught  in  the  school,  there 
could  be  no  objection  to  it ;  but  in  most  cases  it  is  anything 
but  this .  Special  teachers  are  called  in  to  "  coach ' '  the  students , 
and  the  result  is  far  from  satisfactory.  A  few  lessons  can  sel- 
dom make  a  reader,  and  where  that  plan  partially  succeeds,  so 
much  greater  is  the  hypocrisy ;  for  the  reading  stands  for  the 
work  of  the  school  rather  than  for  that  of  an  individual 
teacher.  A  true  showing  of  the  work  of  the  school,  and  one 
that  would  in  time  be  heartily  appreciated  by  parents,  would  be 
to  select  the  good  readers    (a  few  hints  to  them  are  all 


*  A  great  deal  of  what  seems  to  be  unnecessary  confusion  exists 
regarding  the  meaning  of  this  term.  It  is  used  very  freely  to  mean  not 
only  mechanical  facility,  but  also  that  facility  plus  the  knowledge  of 
where  and  how  to  use  it,  a  meaning  which  leads  to  confusion.  Tech- 
nique is  "  a  collective  term  for  all  that  relates  to  the  purely  mechanical 
part  of  either  vocal  or  instrumental  performance.  The  technique  of  a 
performer  may  be  perfect,  and  yet  his  playing  ,  .  ,  fail  to  interpret 
intelligibly  the  ideas  of  the  composer."  These  words  from  the  CetUury 
Dictionary  ought  to  settle  this  misunderstanding  effectually. 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS  ON  METHOD  227 

that  would  be  necessary),  and  let  them,  book  in  hand,  read  as 
they  would  in  class.  If  the  class  reading  has  been  good,  so 
will  be  the  individual  reading;  otherwise  it  has  no  business 
to  parade  under  false  colors  at  public  exercises. 

To  what  extent  shall  pupils  imitate?  No  fixed  rule  should 
be  laid  down,  but  one  might  say  that  they  should  never 
attempt  to  imitate  inflections,  pauses,  rate  of  movement,  and 
the  like.  On  the  contrary,  there  seems  to  be  much  value  in 
stimulating  the  pupils'  imagination  by  having  the  teacher 
read  certain  emotional  passages  for  them.  They  then  may 
catch  the  spirit  of  the  selection  without  any  conscious  effort 
at  imitation.  There  are  many  who  train  a  class  to  read  in 
concert  from  imitation.  The  results  of  such  training  arc 
worse  than  baneful,  leading  only  to  inane,  affected  expres- 
sion. 


PART  THREE 


LITERARY  INTERPRETATION 


CHAPTEE  XVI 

LITERAKY    INTERPRETATION 

In  the  concluding  part  of  this  work  it  is  purposed  to  lay 
before  the  teacher  some  examples  of  literary  interpretation. 
The  object  of  these  is  to  assist  him  to  a  deeper  insight  into 
literature,  and  hence  to  become  a  better  reader  and  teacher 
of  reading. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  accept  as  good  reading 
what  is  often  the  rever&e  simply  because  the  subject  matter 
does  not  appeal  to  us  or  is  only  partly  appreciated.  A  pupil 
may  read  such  a  passage  as  the  following  in  a  commonplace 
way,  and  be  complimented  by  one  teacher  for  his  distinct 
articulation  and  forceful  utterance,  whereas  a  teacher  who 
appreciated  the  true  spirit  of  the  lines  would  severely  con- 
demn the  reading. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day ; 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

The  explanation  of  the  difference  in  the  attitudes  of  the 
teachers  is  that  the  former  has  no  appreciation  of  the  spirit 
of  the  lines,  while  the  latter  keenly  feels  their  tenderness,  their 
beauty,  and  their  pensive  solemnity. 

The  best  way  to  learn  to  love  good  literature  is  to  study 
only  good  literature,  and  to  study  it  again,  again  and  again. 
What  is  truly  great  art  cannot  be  apprehended  at  a  glance, 
but  requires  time  for  its  fullest  appreciation.  We  believe, 
however,  that  it  is  good  pedagogy,  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  to 


232  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

lay  before  the  teacher  certain  examples  of  what  careful 
analysis  may  reveal.  The  effect  of  such  analysis  upon  the 
reading  must  be  evident  to  all. 

We  have  already  discerned  that  all  analysis  preparatory  to 
reading  aloud  is  virtually  literary  analysis.  This  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  chapters  on  Climax  and  on  Contrast.  It 
remains,  therefore,  to  deal  only  with  certain  broader  aspects 
of  literary  appreciation,  in  connection  with  which  we  shall 
endeavor  to  show  the  application  of  the  principles  discussed 
in  Parts  I  and  II  to  vocal  interpretation. 

STUDY   m   RHYTHM 

It  is  a  truism  to  state  that  every  poem  should  be  a  unity, 
but  we  often  forget  a  most  important  corollary,  that  every 
line  should  be  scanned  with  a  view  to  determine  that  unity. 
It  is  only  in  so  far  as  we  understand  the  parts  that  we  under- 
stand the  whole.  Let  us  illustrate  this  principle  in  the  fol- 
lowing well-known  poem: 

HOW   THEY  BROUGHT  THE   GOOD   NEWS    FROM   GHENT 

TO    AIX 

ROBERT  BROWNINa 

I  sprang  to  the  stirrup,  and  Joris,  and  he ; 

I  galloped,  Dirck  galloped,  we  galloped  all  three; 

**Good  speed!"  cried  the  watch,  as  the  gate-bolts  undrew: 

**Speedl"  echoed  the  wall  to  us  galloping  through; 

Behind  shut  the  postern,  the  lights  sank  to  rest, 

And  into  the  midnight  we  galloped  abreast. 

Not  a  word  to  each  other;  we  kept  the  great  pace 
Neck  by  neck,  stride  by  stride,  never  changing  our  place; 
I  turned  in  my  saddle  and  made  its  girths  tight, 
Then  shortened  each  stirrup,  and  set  the  pique  right, 
Rebuckled  the  check-strap,  chained  slacker  the  bit. 
Nor  galloped  less  steadily  Roland  a  whit 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  233 

'Twas  moonset  at  starting;  but  while  we  drew  near 

Lokeren,  the  cocks  crew  and  twilight  dawned  clear, 

At  Boom,  a  great  yellow  star  came  out  to  see ; 

At  Duff  eld,  'twas  morning  as  plain  as  could  be ; 

And  from  Mecheln  church-steeple  we  heard  the  half  chime, 

So  Joris  broke  silence  with,  **Yet  there  is  time  I" 

At  Aerschot,  up  leaped  of  a  sudden  the  sun, 
Aijd  against  him  the  cattle  stood  black  every  one. 
To  stare  through  the  mist  at  us  galloping  past. 
And  I  saw  my  stout  galloper  Roland  at  last, 
With  resolute  shoulders,  each  butting  away 
The  haze,  as  some  bluff  river  headland  its  spray. 

And  his  long  head  and  crest,  just  one  sharp  ear  bent  back 
For  my  voice,  and  the  other  pricked  out  on  his  track; 
And  one  eye's  black  intelligence, — ever  that  glance 
O'er  its  white  edge  at  me,  his  own  master,  askance  I 
And  the  thick  heavy  spume -flakes  which  aye  and  anoii 
His  fierce  lips  shook  upwards  in  galloping  on. 

By  Hasselt,  Dirck  groaned;  and  cried  Joris,  **Stay  spur! 
Your  Roos  galloped  bravely,  the  fault's  not  in  her; 
We'll  remember  at  Aix,"— for  one  heard  the  quick  wheeze 
Of  her  chest,  saw  the  stretched  neck  and  staggering  knees, 
And  sunk  tail,  and  horrible  heave  of  the  flank. 
As  down  on  her  haunches  she  shuddered  and  sank. 

So  we  were  left  galloping,  Joris  and  I, 

Past  Looz  and  past  Tongres,  no  cloud  in  the  sky; 

The  broad  sun  above  laughed  a  pitiless  laugh, 

'Neath  our  feet  broke  the  bright  brittle  stubble  like  chaff; 

Till  over  by  Dalhem  a  dome -spire  sprang  white, 

And  "Gallop,"  gasped  Joris,  "for  Aix  is  in  sight  I" 

"How  they'll  greet  us  I" — and  all  in  a  moment  his  roan 
Rolled  neck  and  croup  over,  lay  dead  as  a  stone ; 
And  there  was  my  Roland  to  bear  the  whole  weight 
Of  the  news  which  alone  could  save  Aix  from  her  fate, 
With  his  nostrils  like  pits  full  of  blood  to  the  brim. 
And  with  circles  of  red  for  his  eye-sockets'  rim 


234  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Then  I  cast  loose  my  buff  coat,  each  holster  let  fall, 

Shook  off  both  my  jack-boots,  let  go  belt  and  all, 

Stood  up  in  the  stirrup,  leaned,  patted  his  ear, 

Called  my  Roland  his  pet-name,  my  horse  without  peer ; 

Clapped  my  hands,  laughed  and  sang,  any  noise,  bad  or  good. 

Till  at  length  into  Aix  Roland  galloped  and  stood. 

And  all  I  remember  is,  friends  flocking  round 

As  I  sat  with  his  head  'twixt  my  knees  on  the  ground, 

And  no  voice  but  was  praising  this  Roland  of  mine, 

As  I  poured  down  his  throat  our  last  measure  of  wine, 

Which  (the  burgesses  voted  by  common  consent) 

Was  no  more  than  his  due  who  brought  good  news  from  Ghent. 

The  central  idea  in  this  poem  is  Eoland ;  not  the  rider,  not 
the  historical  element.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  tlie  poem  lias  no 
historical  basis.  Browning  tells  lis  somewhere  that  after  a 
tiresome  and  tedious  sea  yoyage  he  longed  for  a  gallop  over 
the  English  downs,  and  that  this  poem  is  a  result  of  that 
longing.  The  rhythm  of  the  poem  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
express  the  bounding  joy  of  the  poet,  and  is  in  striking  con- 
trast to  the  long,  monotonous  roll  of  ocean  waves. 

On  studying  the  poem,  we  note  the  absence  of  any  but 
cursory  reference  to  the  rider,  and,  on  the  contrary,  the 
constant  reference  to  the  real  hero,  Eoland.  One  might 
imagine  a  setting  for  the  lines  something  as  follows :  Around 
a  camp-fire  are  gathered  many  veterans  of  the  wars.  They 
are  telling  of  the  gallant  deeds  of  their  war  steeds,  when  one 
of  their  number  starts  up  and  says : 

"You  talk  of  your  horses;  have  you  ever  heard  of  mine? 
Have  you  heard  how  my  Eoland  helped  to  save  Aix?  No? 
Let  me  tell  you.  You  remember  so-and-so's  famous  cam- 
paign, and  how  the  enemy  were  preparing  to  take  Aix. 
You  know,  too,  that  the  officer  in  command  had  no  hope  of 
saving  the  city  and  was  preparing  to  capitulate  the  moment 
the  enemy  began  the  attack.     Well,  one  night,  just  after  we 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  235 

Had  turned  in,  a  messenger  came  in  hot  haste  to  tell  us 
that  the  king  himself  had  that  day  started  to  relieve  the  city 
and  that  we  must  carry  the  good  news  to  Aix  and  thus 
encourage  them  to  hold  out  until  his  arrival.  Our  com- 
mander called  for  three  volunteers  to  undertake  the  danger- 
ous task  of  bearing  the  news.  We — Joris,  Dirck,  and  I — 
offered  our  services.  They  were  accepted,  and  ar  moment 
after  we  had  received  our  instructions, 

*I  sprang  to  the  stirrup,  and  Joris,  and  he;'  ^ 

From  now  on  observe  how  the  poet  fixes  our  attention  on 
Eoland. 

Nor  galloped  less  steadily  Roland  a  whit. 

And  I  saw  my  stout  galloper  Roland  at  last, 
With  resolute  shoulders,  each  butting  away 
The  haze,  as  some  bluff  river  headland  its  spray. 

And  there  was  my  Roland  to  bear  the  whole  weight 
Of  the  news  which  alone  could  save  Aix  from  her  fate, 

Till  at  length  into  Aix  Roland  galloped  and  stood. 

And  no  voice  but  was  praising  this  Roland  of  mine. 

The  whole  of  the  fifth  stanza  is  devoted  to  praise  of 
Eoland;  while  the  failure  of  the  horses  of  Joris  and  Dirck 
serves  but  to  enhance  the  glory  of  Roland's  feat. 

As  soon  as  we  perceive  the  meaning  of  the  poem — its  central 
thought — the  entire  reading  becomes  permeated  with  the  joy 
and  exultation  of  the  rider  in  his  steed.  The  poem  is  well 
adapted  to  develop  vocal  flexibility,  and  freedom  of  expression. 

Tennyson's  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  affords  another 
opportunity  for  analysis. 

The  atmosphere  of  this  poem  is  that  of  a  dirge.  This  does 
not  mean  that  we  snivel  and  whine  while  rendering  it,  but  that 
the  whole  poem  is  enveloped  in  the  atmosphere  of  dignified 


236  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

solemnity.  It  is  true  that  this  is  not  the  popular  view,  which 
seems  to  be  that  Tennyson  wrote  the  poem  to  afford  the  reader 
an  opportunity  of  making  descriptive  gestures.  Tennyson's 
heart  ached  for  those  brave  fellows  in  their  useless  sacrifice ;  and 
he  wrote  the  poem,  not  primarily  to  show  how  they  fought,  but 
that  they  fought  in  vain.  True,  there  is  a  vein  of  stirring 
patriotism  in  the  lines,  but  all  that  is  inferior  in  importance  to 
the  dignified  solemnity  and  controlled  pathos  of  the  speaker. 

THE  CHARGE  OF  THE  LIGHT  BRIGADE 

TENNYSON 

Half  a  league,  half  a  league, 

Half  a  league  onward, 
All  in  the  valley  of  Death 

Rode  the  six  hundred,  . 

"Forward,  the  Light  Brigade!  / 

Charge  for  the  guns  I"  he  said: 
Into  the  valley  of  Death  : 

Rode  the  six  hundred. 

"Forward*  the  Light  Brigade!" 
Was  there  a  man  dismayed? 
Not  tho'  the  soldier  knew 

Some  one  had  blunder'd: 
Theirs  not  to  make  reply, 
Theirs  not  to  reason  why, 
Theirs  but  to  do  and  die : 
Into  the  valley  of  Death 

Rode  the  six  hundred. 

Cannon  to  right  of  them. 
Cannon  to  left  of  them. 
Cannon  in  front  of  them 

Volley' d  and  thunder 'd; 
Storm'd  at  with  shot  and  shell 
Boldly  they  rode  and  well, 
Into  the  jaws  of  Death, 
Into  the  mouth  of  Hell 

Rode  the  six  hundred 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  237 

Flash'd  all  their  sabres  bare, 
Flash'd  as  they  turned  in  air 
Sabring  the  gunners  there. 
Charging  an  army,  while 

All  the  world  wonder'd: 
Plunged  in  the  battery-smoke 
Right  thro'  the  line  they  broke; 
Cossack  and  Russian 
Reel'd  from  the  sabre-stroke 

Shatter' d  and  sunder' d. 
Then  they  rode  back,  but  not— 

Not  the  six  hundred. 

Cannon  to  right  of  them, 
Cannon  to  left  of  them, 
Cannon  behind  them 

Volley *d  and  thunder'd;' 
Storm'd  at  with  shot  and  shell, 
While  horse  and  hero  fell. 
They  that  had  fought  so  well 
Came  thro'  the  jaws  of  Death, 
Back  from  the  mouth  of  Hell, 
All  that  was  left  of  them, 

Left  of  six  hundred. 

When  can  their  glory  fade? 
O  the  wild  charge  they  made  I 

All  the  world  wonder'd. 
Honor  the  charge  they  made! 
Honor  the  Light  Brigade, 

Noble  Six  Hundred  f 

It  is  impossible  to  overlook  the  constant  recurrence  of  the 
phrases  *' valley  of  Death ;'*  *'jaws  of  Death;"  ''mouth  of 
Hell,"  and  their  significance.  The  keynote  of  the  poem  is 
found  in  the  line, 

Some  one  had  blunderM ; 


238  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Here  is  the  central  thought.  The  men  made  a  gallant 
charge,  went  boldly  and  willingly  to  their  doom ;  but  it  was 
all  a  mistake,  a  fearful,  horrible  mistake.  We  care  not  for 
the  fact  that  cannons  were  to  the  right,  to  the  left,  and  to 
the  front  of  them.  The  mere  position  is  nothing.  Bnt  who 
can  repress  the  shudder  of  despair  as  he  contemplates  that 
heroic  band  surrounded  by  fires  from  death-dealing  cannon? 

On  pages  200  and  201  will  be  found  three  poems  from 
Tennyson,  each  of  which  presents  a  different  aspect.  The 
first  is  marked  by  an  exquisite  simplicity.  It  contains  but 
one  simple  idea,  which  is  set  forth  in  the  simplest  language. 
Consequently,  the  reading  should  be  equally  unassuming. 
The  least  appearance  of  affectation  or  effort  will  dissipate  the 
atmosphere. 

The  second  is  a  lullaby.  The  rocking  cradle  is  felt  in 
every  line,  while  in  the  last  line  of  each  stanza  we  have  the 
rhythmic  picture  of  the  gradual  cessation  of  the  rocking,  and 
it  seems  impossible  to  omit  the  long  pause  before  the  lasfc 
word  in  each  of  these  lines,  a  pause  exactly  equal  to  the  time 
of  one  of  the  preceding  feet. 

The  third  poem  is  of  an  entirely  different  nature.  Here 
we  have  the  strength  of  spirit  that  animated  King  Arthur's 
Knights  of  the  Eound  Table.  When  we  bear  in  mind  that 
this  song  is  sung  after  King  Arthur's  claim  to  the  throne, 
which  has  long  been  in  doubt,  has  been  firmly  established, 
and  he  has  taken  Guinevere  to  wife,  we  can  better  under- 
stand its  passionate  joy. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  literature  is  rhythm.  The  meaning  of  rhythm  is 
not  always  clearly  apprehended,  many  regarding  it  simply  as 
poets'  playfulness,  interesting  in  the  nursery  rhyme,  tickling 
the  childish  ear,  but  beyond  that  a  useless  and  even  senseless 
filigree.     Nothing  could   be  farther  from  truth.     Khythm  is 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  239 

not  a  conventional  appendage  of  poetry,  but  its  very  heart, 
life,  spirit.  It  springs  spontaneously  from  the  poet's  heart, 
and  is  the  manifestation  of  his  deepest  feeling.  Who  can  fail 
to  catch  the  bounding  spirit  of  life  and  joy  in  the  following : 

I  come,  I  come !  ye  have  called  me  long ; 
I  come  o'er  the  mountains  with  light  and  song; 
Ye  may  trace  my  step  o'er  the  wakening  earth, 
By  the  winds  which  tell  of  the  violet's  birth. 
By  the  primrose  stars  in  the  shadowy  grass. 
By  the  green  leaves  opening  as  I  pass. 

—Spring.    Hemans. 

Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 

Jest,  and  joyful  JoUity, 

Quips,  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles. 

Nods,  and  becks,  and  wreathed  smiles. 

Such  as  hang  on  Hebe's  cheek. 

And  love  to  live  in  dimple  sleek ; 

Sport  that  wrinkled  Care  derides. 

And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides. 

Come  and  trip  it  as  you  go 

On  the  light  fantastic  toe ; 

And  in  thy  right  hand  lead  with  thee 

The  mountain-nymph,  sweet  Liberty: 

And,  if  I  give  thee  honor  due, 

Mirth,  admit  me  to  thy  crew, 

To  live  with  her,  and  live  with  thee, 

In  unreproved  pleasures  free : 

—U  Allegro.    Milton. 

What  a  dignity  is  imparted  to  the  scene  by  the  rhythm  in 
the  following  extracts : 

Here  are  old  trees,  tall  oaks  and  gnarled  pines. 
That  stream  with  gray-green  mosses ;  here  the  grouiid 
Was  never  trenched  by  spade,  and  flowers  spring  up 
Unsown,  and  die  ungathered.     It  is  sweet 
To  linger  here,  among  the  flitting  birds 


240  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  leaping  squirrels,  wandering  brooks,  and  winds 

That  shake  the  leaves,  and  scatter  as  they  pass, 

A  fragrance  from  the  cedars,  thickly  set 

With  pale  blue  berries.     In  these  peaceful  shades — 

Peaceful,  unpruned,  immeasurably  old — 

My  thoughts  go  up  the  long  dim  path  of  years. 

Back  to  the  earliest  days  of  liberty. 

—Freedom.    Bryant. 

A  land  of  streams !  some,  like  a  downward  smoke. 

Slow-dropping  veils  of  thinnest  lawn,  did  go ; 

And  some  through  wavering  lights  and  shadows  broke 

Rolling  a  slumbrous  sheet  of  foam  below. 

They  saw  the  gleaming  river  seaward  flow 

From  the  inner  land :  far  off,  three  mountain-tops, 

Three  silent  pinnacles  of  aged  snow. 

Stood  sunset-flushed :  and,  dewed  with  showery  drops, 

Up-clomb  the  shadowy  pine  above  the  woven  copse. 

— The  Lotos-Eaters.    Tennyson. 

Often  in  the  same  poem  the  emotional  changes  are  mani- 
fested in  changes  of  rhythm.  Observe  this  in  the  following 
lines : 

Look !  look !  that  livid  flash ! 
And  instantly  follows  the  rattling  thunder 
As  if  some  cloud-crag,  split  asunder,  \ 

Fell,  splintering  with  a  ruinous  crash,  \ 

On  the  earth,  which  crouches  in  silence  under  • 
And  now  a  solid  gray  wall  of  rain 
Shuts  off  the  landscape,  mile  by  mile ; 

For  a  breath's  space  I  see  the  blue  wood  again, 
And,  ere  the  next  heart-beat,  the  wind-hurled  pile 
That  seemed  but  now  a  league  aloof. 
Bursts  rattling  over  the  sun-parched  roof; 
Against  the  windows  the  storm  comes  dashing. 
Through  tattered  foliage  the  hail  tears  crashing, 
The  blue  lightning  flashes, 
The  rapid  hail  clashes. 
The  white  waves  are  tumbling, 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  241 

And  in  one  baffled  roar, 
Like  the  toothless  sea  mumbling 

A  rock-bristling  shore, 
The  thunder  is  rumbling 
And  crashing  and  crumbling, — 

Will  silence  return  never  more? 

— A  Summer  Shower.    Lowell. 

Or  in  the  concluding  stanzas  of  Wordsworth's  ode  on  Inti- 
mations of  Immortality: 

Then  sing,  ye  birds,  sing,  sing  a  joyous  song! 

And  let  the  young  lambs  bound 

As  to  the  tabor's  sound ! 
We  in  thought  will  join  your  throng. 

Ye  that  pipe  and  ye  that  play, 

Ye  that  through  your  hearts  to-day 

Feel  the  gladness  of  the  May ! 
What  though  the  radiance  that  was  once  so  bright 
Be  now  forever  taken  from  my  sight. 

Though  nothing  can  bring  back  the  hour 
Of  splendor  in  the  grass,  of  glory  in  the  flower, 

We  will  grieve  not,  rather  find 

Strength  in  what  remains  behind, 

In  the  primal  sympathy 

Which  having  been,  must  ever  be ; 

In  the  soothing  thoughts  that  spring 

Out  of  human  suffering ; 

In  the  faith  that  looks  through  death, 
In  years  that  bring  the  philosophic  mind. 

And  O  ye  fountains,  meadows,  hills  and  groves. 
Forebode  not  any  severing  of  our  loves! 
Yet  in  my  heart  of  hearts  I  feel  your  might ; 
I  only  have  relinquished  one  delight, 
To  live  beneath  your  more  habitual  sway. 
I  love  the  brooks  which  down  their  channels  fret, 
Even  more  than  when  I  tripped  lightly  as  they : 
The  innocent  brightness  of  a  new-born  day 
Is  lovely  yet; 


242  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

The  clouds  that  gather  round  the  setting  sun 
Do  take  a  sober  coloring  from  an  eye 
That  hath  kept  watch  o'er  man's  mortality ; 
Another  race  hath  been,  and  other  palms  are  won. 
Thanks  to  the  human  heart  by  which  we  live; 
Thanks  to  its  tenderness,  its  joys  and  fears, 
To  me  the  meanest  flower  that  blows  can  give 
Thoughts  that  do  often  lie  too  deep  for  tears. 

In  blank  verse  we  get  the  best  and  clearest  illustration  of 
the  meaning  of  rhythm.  Here  tLe  poe:  has  the  utmost  free- 
dom, untrammeled  by  rhyme  or  any  limitations  as  to  the 
length  of  his  stanza.  The  rhythm  in  the  description  of  the 
overthrow  of  Satan  is  most  suggestive  of  strength  and 
determination : 

Him  the  Almighty  power 
HurPd  headlong  flaming  from  th'  ethereal  sky, 
With  hideous  ruin  and  combustion,  down 
To  bottomless  perdition ;  there  to  dwell 
In  adamantine  chains  and  penal  fire. 
Who  durst  defy  th'  Omnipotent  to  armst 

— Paradise  Lost,  Book  I.     Milton- 

How  clearly  the  frantic  passion  of  Lear  is  shown  in  the 
irregular,  erratic,  almost  chaotic,  rhythm  of  the  following 
speech : 

Blow,  winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks!  rage!  blow! 

You  cataracts  and  hurricanoes,  spout 

Till  you  have  drench'd  our  steeples,  drowned  the  cocks! 

You  sulphurous  and  thought -executing  fires, 

Vaunt -couriers  to  oak-cleaving  thunderbolts, 

Singe  my  white  head!    And  thou,  all -shaking  thunder, 

Smite  flat  the  thick  rotundity  o'  the  world! 

Crack  Nature*s  moulds,  all  germens  spill  at  once. 

That  make  ingratef  ul  man  I 

— King  Lear,  Act  iii.,  Sc.  2 


,      STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  243 

Note  how  the  varying  rhythm  in  the  following  passage 
corresponds  with  the  ever  varying  moods  of  the  King  and 
the  poet : 

To  whom  replied  King  Arthur,  much  in  wrath; 
**Ah,  miserable  and  unkind,  untrue, 
Unknightly,  traitor-hearted!    Woe  is  me! 
Authority  forgets  a  dying  king, 
Laid  widow' d  of  the  power  in  his  eye 
That  bow'd  the  wilL     I  see  thee  what  thou  art 
For  thou,  the  latest-left  of  all  my  knights. 
In  whom  should  meet  the  offices  of  all. 
Thou  wouldst  betray  me  for  the  precious  hilt ; 
Either  from  lust  of  gold,  or  like  a  girl 
Valuing  the  giddy  pleasure  of  the  eyes. 
Yet,  for  a  man  may  fail  in  duty  twice, 
And  the  third  time  may  prosper,  get  thee  hence: 
But,  if  thou  spare  to  fling  Excalibur, 
I  will  arise  and  slay  thee  with  my  hands.** 

Then  quickly  rose  Sir  Bedivere,  and  ran. 
And,  leaping  down  the  ridges  lightly,  plunged 
Among  the  bulrush-beds,  and  clutch' d  the  sword, 
And  strongly  wheel' d  and  threw  it.     The  great  brand 
Made  lightnings  in  the  splendor  of  the  moon» 
And  flashing  round  and  round,  and  whirl' d  in  an  arch, 
Shot  like  a  streamer  of  the  northern  morn. 
Seen  where  the  moving  isles  of  winter  shock 
By  night,  with  noises  of  the  northern  sea. 
So  flash'd  and  fell  the  brand  Excalibur: 
But  ere  he  dipt  the  surface,  rose  an  arm 
Clothed  in  white  samite,  mystic,  wonderful. 
And  caught  him  by  the  hilt,  and  brandish'd  him 
Three  times,  and  drew  him  under  in  the  mere. 
And  lightly  went  the  other  to  the  King. 

—Morte  d* Arthur,    Tennyson. 

In  order  to  give  a  clear  conception  of  the  meaning 
and  purpose  of  rhythm,  the  analysis  of  an  entire  poem  is 
given. 


244  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

THE    REVENGE 
A    BALLAD    OF  THE   FLEET 
TENNYSON 
1 
At  Flores  in  the  Azores  Sir  Richard  Grenville  lay, 
And  a  pinnace,  like  a  fluttered  bird,  came  flying  from  far  away! 
* 'Spanish  ships  of  war  at  seat  we  have  sighted  fifty-three  I" 
Then  sware  Lord  Thomas  Howard;  **  Tore  God  I  am  no  coward; 
But  I  cannot  meet  them  here,  for  my  ships  are  out  of  gear,  5 

And  the  half  my  men  are  sick.     I  must  fly,  but  follow  quick. 
We  are  six  ships  of  the  line ;  can  we  fight  with  fifty -three?" 

II 

Then  spake  Sir  Richard  Grenville:  **I  know  you  are  no  coward; 
You  fly  them  for  a  moment  to  fight  with  them  again. 
But  I've  ninety  men  and  more  that  are  lying  sick  ashore.  10 

I  should  count  myself  the  coward  if  I  left  them»  my  Lord  Howard, 
To  these  Inquisition  dogs  and  the  devildoms  of  Spain." 

Ill 

So  Lord  Howard  past  away  with  five  ships  of  war  that  day, 

Till  he  melted  like  a  cloud  in  the  silent  summer  heaven; 

But  Sir  Richard  bore  in  hand  all  his  sick  men  from  the  land  15 

Very  carefully  and  slow, 

Men  of  Bideford  in  Devon, 

And  we  laid  them  on  the  ballast  down  below; 

For  we  brought  them  all  aboard. 

And  they  blest  him  in  their  pain,  that  they  were  not  left  to 

Spain,  20 

To  the  thumbscrew  and  the  stake,  for  the  glory  of  the  Lord. 

IV 

He  had  only  a  hundred  seamen  to  work  the  ship  and  to  fight, 
And  he  sailed  away  from  Flores  till  the  Spaniard  came  in  sight, 
With  his  huge  sea -castles  heaving  upon  the  weather  bow. 
*'Shall  we  fight  or  shall  we  fly?  25 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  245 

Good  Sir  Richard,  tell  us  now, 

For  to  fight  is  but  to  die! 

There'll  be  little  of  us  left  by  the  time  this  sun  be  set." 

And  Sir  Richard  said  again:  **We  be  all  good  English  men 

Let  us  bang  these  dogs  of  Seville,  the  children  of  the  devil,  30 

For  I  never  turned  my  back  upon  Don  or  devil  yet." 

V 
Sir  Richard  spoke  and  he  laughM,  and  we  roar*d  a  hurrah,  and  so 
The  little  Revenge  ran  on  sheer  into  the  heart  of  the  foe, 
With  her  hundred  fighters  on  deck,  and  her  ninety  sick  below ; 
For  half  of  their  fleet  to  the  right  and  half  to  the  left  were  seen,    35 
And  the  little  Revenge  ran  on  thro'  the  long  sea-lane  between. 

VI 

Thousands  of  their  soldiers  look'd  down  from  their  decks  and 

laugh'd, 
Thousands  of  their  seamen  made  mock  at  the  mad  little  craft 
Running  on  and  on,  till  delay 'd 

By  their  mountain-like  San  Philip  that,  of  fifteen  hundred  tons,     40 
And  up-shadowing  high  above  us  with  her  yawning  tiers  of  guns, 
Took  the  breath  from  our  sails,  and  we  stay'd. 

VII 
And  while  now  the  great  San  Philip  hung  above  us  like  a  cloud 
Whence  the  thunderbolt  will  fall 

Long  and  loud,  45 

Four  galleons  drew  away 
From  the  Spanish  fleet  that  day, 

And  two  upon  the  larboard  and  two  upon  the  starboard  lay, 
And  the  battle-thunder  broke  from  them  all. 

VIII 
But  anon  the  great  San  Philip,  she  bethought  herself  and  went      50 
Having  that  within  her  womb  that  had  left  her  ill  content ; 
And  the  rest  they  came  aboard  us,  and  they  fought  us  hand  to  hand, 
For  a  dozen  times  they  came  with  their  pikes  and  musqueteers, 
And  a  dozen  times  we  shook  'em  off  as  a  dog  that  shakes  his  ears 
When  he  leaps  from  the  water  to  the  land,  55 


246  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

IX 

And  the  sun  went  down,  and  the  stars  came  out  far  over  the 

summer  sea,  55 

But  never  a  moment  ceased  the  fight  of  the  one  and  the  fifty  three. 
Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  their  high-built  galleons 

came, 
Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  with  her  battle-thunder 

and  flame ; 
Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  drew  back  with  her  dead 

and  her  shame. 
For  some  were  sunk  and  many  were  shatter' d,  and  so  could 

fight  us  no  more—  60 

God  of  battles,  was  ever  a  battle  like  this  in  the  world  before? 


For  he  said  "Fight  ont  fight  on!" 

Tho'  his  vessel  was  all  but  a  wreck; 

And  it  chanced  that,  when  half  of  the  short  summer  night  was 

gone, 
With  a  grisly  wound  to  be  drest  he  had  left  the  deck,  65 

But  a  bullet  struck  him  that  was  dressing  it  suddenly  dead, 
And  himself  he  was  wounded  again  in  the  side  and  the  head, 
And  he  said  "Fight  on!  fight  on!'* 


XI 

And  the  night  went  down,  and  the  sun  smiled  out  far  over  the 

summer  sea. 
And  the  Spanish  fleet  with  broken  sides  lay  round  us  all  in  a 

ring ;  70 

But  they  dared  not  touch  us  again,  for  they  fear'd  that  we  still 

could  sting. 
So  they  watch' d  v/hat  the  end  would  be. 
And  we  had  not  fought  them  in  vain, 
But  in  perilous  plight  were  we, 

Seeing  forty  of  our  poor  hundred  were  slain,  75 

And  half  of  the  rest  of  us  maim'd  for  life 
In  the  crash  of  the  cannonades  and  the  desperate  strife; 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  247 

And  the  sick  men  down  in  the  hold  were  most  of  them  stark 

and  cold, 
And  the  pikes  were  all  broken  or  bent  and  the  powder  was  all 

of  it  spent ; 
And  the  masts  and  the  rigging  were  lying  over  the  side;  80 

But  Sir  Richard  cried  in  his  English  pride, 
**We  have  fought  such  a  iight  for  a  day  and  a  night 
As  may  never  be  fought  again  I 
We  have  won  great  glory,  my  men! 

And  a  day  less  or  more  85 

At  sea  or  ashore,  • 

We  die— does  it  matter  when? 

Sink  me  the  ship,  Master  Gunner— sink  her,  split  her  in  twain  I 
Fall  into  the  hands  of  God,  not  into  the  hands  of  Spain  I" 

XII 

And  the  gunner  said  **Ay,  ay,'*  but  the  seamen  made  reply:  90 

*'We  have  children,  we  have  wives. 

And  the  Lord  hath  spared  our  lives. 

We  will  make  the  Spaniard  promise,  if  we  yield  to  let  us  go , 

We  shall  live  to  fight  again  and  to  strike  another  blow." 

And  the  lion  there  lay  dying,  and  they  yielded  to  the  foe.  95 

XIII 

And  the  stately  Spanish  men  to  their  flagship  bore  him  then, 
Where  they  laid  him  by  the  mast,  old  Sir  Richard  caught  at  last, 
And  they  praised  him  to  his  face  with  their  courtly  foreign  grace ; 
But  he  rose  upon  their  decks,  and  he  c«ied  : 
*'I  have  fought  for  Queen  and  Faith  like  a  valiant  man  and  100 

true; 
I  have  only  done  my  duty  as  a  man  is  bound  to  do : 
With  a  joyful  spirit  I  Sir  Richard  Grenville  die!'* 
And  he  fell  upon  their  decks,  and  he  died. 

XIV 
And  they  stared  at  the  dead  that  had  been  so  valiant  and  true, 
And  had  holden  the  power  and  glory  of  Spain  so  cheap  105 

That  he  dared  her  with  one  little  ship  and  his  English  few ; 
Was  he  devil  or  man?    He  was  devil  for  aught  they  knew, 


248  BEADING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

But  they  sank  his  body  with  honor  down  into  the  deep. 

And  they  mann'd  the  Revenge  with  a  swarthier  alien  crew, 

And  away  she  sail'd  with  her  loss  and  long'd  for  her  own;  110 

When  a  wind  from  the  lands  they  had  ruin'd  awoke  from  sleep, 

And  the  water  began  to  heave  and  the  weather  to  moan, 

And  or  ever  that  evening  ended  a  great  gale  blew, 

And  a  wave  like  the  wave  that  is  raised  by  an  earthquake  grew. 

Till  it  smote  on  their  hulls  and  their  sails  and  their  masts  and 

their  flags,  115 

And  the  whole  sea  plunged  and  fell  on  the  shot -shattered  navy 

of  Spain, 
And  the  little  Revenge  herself  went  down  by  the  island  crags 
To  be  lost  evermore  in  the  main. 

KOTES   OK   EHYTHM 

Stanza    I 

1.  1-2. — !N"orinal  rhythm. 

1.  3. — N^ote  the  emphasis  imparted  to  the  call  by  the 
trochees. 

L  4-6. — The  effect  of  the  internal  rhymes  Howard — coivard^ 
here — gear^  sick — quiclc^  is  very  marked.  Similar  effects  are 
frequently  introduced  in  the  poem. 

Stanza    II 
1.  10. — ^The  two  emphatic  syllables,  Pve  and  nine-^  coming 
in  succession,  add  force  to^Sir  Richard's  statement. 

Stanza  III 
1.  13. — Note  how  the  author  retards  his  movement  and 
hence  impresses  us  with  the  slow  moving  picture,  by  drawing 
his  emphatic  syllables  together,  as  So  Lord  How-;  five  ships; 
and  that  day.  This  effect  is  one  of  the  commonest  in 
literature,  and  one  of  the  most  natural.  This  line  will  scan 
as  a  normal  line ;  but  let  us  bear  in  mind  that  sense  accent 
determines  the  rhythm  in  English,  not  quantity. 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  249 

1,  16. — A  strange  device,  tlie  effect  of  whicli  is  to  cause 
Sir  Eichard's  gallantry  to  stand  out  most  strikingly.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  fifty-three  Spanish  galleons  were  coming 
down  upon  him,  the  brave  captain  was  as  considerate  in  the 
handling  of  his  sick  sailors  as  a  mother  of  her  babe.  And 
this  is  emphasized  by  making  this  statement  in  a  line  by  itself. 

Stanza  IV 

1.  24. — Again  note  the  strength  imparted  by  the  successive 
accents  in  huge  sea-castles  lieaving, 

1.  25-27. — The  abruptness  aptly  fits  in  with  the  sentiment. 
Observe  that  the  effect  of  the  short  line  is  brought  out  by 
the  rhyme,  fly — die.  The  further  apart  the  rhyming,  words, 
the  less  striking  the  rhyme  effect.    See  lines  43-45,  and  57-59. 

Stanza  V 

1.  32. — ^Full  of  strength  and  admirably  expressive  in  rhythm. 

1.  36. — Again  we  observe  the  retardation  and  its  effect. 
Observe  further,  that  this  is  the  first  time  the  concluding  line 
of  a  stanza  has  deviated  from  the  normal,  and  note  how  appro- 
priate is  the  deviation ;  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  variety,  but 
the  spontaneous  expression  of  feeling. 

Stanza    VI 

1.  37-38. — How  forceful  is  the  effect  of  beginning  each 
line  with  the  accented  syllable  1 

1.  42. — The  contrast  of  this  line  with  the  preceding  is 
most  marked.  Line  41  is  long  drawn  out,  while  in  42  one 
can  feel  the  shock  of  the  abrupt  stop. 

Stanza    VIII 
I.  53-54. — The  first  four    lines  of  this    stanza  are  quite 
regular,  but  when  we  reach  the  last  two,  observe  the  corre- 
spondence between  the  rhythm  and  the  sense. 


250  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Stanza    IX 
1.  56-60. — How  admirably  the  rhytlim  lends  itself  to  tlie 
expression  of   the  feelings  of   the  narrator  as  he  recalls  the 
terrible  strain  of   that  never-ending  night!     One  must  read 
the  passage  aloud  to  appreciate  this  effect. 

Stanza  X 

1.  63. — Observe  the  strength  of  Fight  on!  Fight  on!  and 
also  the  contrast  between  the  rhythm  of  this  stanza  and  that 
of  Stanza  IX. 

The  stanza  as  a  whole  moves  quite  rapidly,  owing  to  the 
preponderance  of  unaccented  syllables.  The  appropriateness 
of  this  rapid  movement  is  recognized  when  we  bear  in  mind 
that  the  stanza  is  intended  to  cite  but  one  incident  of  that 
awful  night,  and  serves  only  as  a  link  between  Stanzas  IX 
and  XI. 

Stanza   XI 

1.  70. — Compare  this  rhythm  with  that  of  line  56,  and 
observe  how  the  emotion  of  Stanza  IX  is  recalled  by  tho 
similarity  of  rhythm. 

1.  83-90.— Compare  with  lines  25-28  and  91-95. 

Stanza  XIII 
1.  99. — Compare     with     lines    42    and    103,    and    note 
similarity  of  mood. 

Stanza  XIV 
1.  112-119. — It  is  almost  impossible  to  analyze  the  effect 
of  these  lines,  so  admirably  do  sound,  sense,  and  rhythm 
correspond.  We  can,  however,  clearly  observe  the  forceful 
effect  of  great  gale  Mew;  the  accumulation  of  power  and  size 
in  line  115 ;  the  exultant  joy  of  the  speaker  as  he  describes 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  251 

the  effect  of  the  storm  in  lines  116  and  117;  and  the  gradual 
diminution  of  the  passion  as  the  poem  comes  back  to  normal 
movement  in  the  concluding  line. 

IKTERPRETATIYE   NOTES 

The  poem  as  a  whole  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of  vigorous 
Anglo-Saxon.  There  are  few  inversions,  the  style  is  simple 
and  direct,  and  -  the  imagery  peculiarly  appropriate.  The 
speaker  is  a  survivor,  and  brings  us  face  to  face  with  one  of 
the  proudest  moments  in  the  history  of  English  naval 
wai^fare. 

The  poem  deals  with  an  event  at  the  close  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  the  Spanish  Armada  against  Great  Britain,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  know  that  it  is  almost  literally  true  to  fact  and 
history. 

Stanza    I 

1.  4-7. — The  opening  words  seem  a  little  like  brag.  But 
Sir  Eichard's  reply,  which  is  borne  out  by  history,  proves  the 
contrary.  The  oath  is  not  the  vain  oath  of  a  braggart,  but 
the  solemn  words  of  one  who  believes  in  God  and  calls  upon 
Him  to  bear  witness  to  the  truth  of  his  statement. 

Stanza    II 
1.  8. — The  delivery  of  the  first  five  words  will  certainly 
manifest  the  pride  of  the  narrator  in  such  a  leader. 

1.  12. — Note  the  contempt  expressed  in  dogs  and  devildoms. 

Stanza    III 

1.  15-18. — Be  sure  to  bring  out  the  speaker's  emotion. 
How  the  common  sailor  worships  him  who  stayed  to  certain 
death  to  save  the  lives  of  his  sick  men ! 

1.  21. — Note  the  irony,  contempt,  and  even  hate. 


252  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Stanza    IV 

1.  25-28. — The  rhythm  clearly  indicates  the  abrupt  man- 
ner in  which  these  lines  should  be  read. 

1.  29. —  We  be  all  good  E7iglish  men:  this  is  Sir  Richard's 
answer  to  their  appeal. 

Stanza  V 

1.  33. — Heart:  right  into  the  midst  of  the  fleet.  The 
Spaniards  came  down  in  double  line  of  battle.  It  was  evi- 
dently Sir  Richard's  intention  to  attempt  to  escape  with  his 
fleet  craft  by  running  the  gauntlet  of  heavy,  large,  unwieldy 
Spanish  galleons.  A  picture  of  these  galleons,  with  their 
triple  and  quadruple  decks,  will  gTeatly  assist  us  to  compre- 
hend the  disastrous  outcome  of  one  of  the  most  elaborate 
naval  demonstrations  in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  ves- 
sels were  so  unwieldy  that  only  a  few  at  a  time  could  attack 
the  Revenge,  and,  by  constant  maneuvering.  Sir  Richard 
could  almost  always  avoid  the  effect  of  their  cannonading. 

Stanza    VI 
1.  37-38. — There  is  bitter  sarcasm  in  these  lines  as  the 
speaker  recalls  the  outcome  of  the  fight. 

Stanza    VIII 
1.  50. — Bethought  herself:  note  the  sarcasm. 

Stanza    IX 

1.  56-60. — The  emotion  of  these  five  lines  is  very  strik- 
ing. Oh!  the  anguish,  horror,  and  suspense  of  that  awful 
night.  The  sun  went  down,  but  the  battle  went  on.  The 
stars  came  out,  but  still  no  rest.  And  so  on,  on,  on,  through 
that  dreadful  night. 

1.  62-61. — Observe  the  sudden  transition  and  the  exultant 
shout  at  the  end. 


STUDY  IN  RHYTHM  "  253 

Stanza    X 
See  note  on  rhythm. 

Stanza   XI 

1.  72. — Observe  the  note  of  pride  and  grim  determination. 

1.  74. — The  speaker  apologizes  for  even  an  appearance  of 
boastfnlness. 

1.  75-81.— Pafchos. 

1.  83-90. — Note  the  contrast  between  the  emotion  of  Sir 
Richard  in  these  lines  and  that  of  the  speaker  in  uttering 
lines  75-81. 

Stanza  XII 

1.  92-95. — The  sailors  would  naturally  speak  rapidly.  The 
rhythm  helps  us  to  understand  their  feelings. 

1.  93. — And  therefore  we  have  no  right  to  kill  ourselves. 
A  most  significant  line. 

Stanza  XIII 

1.  99. — Observe  the  tribute  the  Englishman  pays  to  his 
foe.  See  also  line  108.  The  voice  should  manifest  the 
speaker's  attitude  and  will  when  we  grasp  the  situation. 

1.  101-103. — 'Note  and  bring  out  the  blunt  defiance  of  Sir 
Richard. 

Stanza   XIV 

1.  110. — How  natural  seems  the  use  of  her!  It  is  express- 
ive of  the  sailor's  love  for  his  vessel.  And  further,  we 
remark  that  the  Revenge  becomes  human  as  she  yearns  for 
those  who  so  long  have  seemed  her  very  children. 

1.  112. — Here  we  have  one  of  the  most  significant  lines  in 
the  whole  poem.  History  tells  us  that  a  storm  arose  and 
shattered  the  remnant  of  the  Armada,  and  sunk  the  battered 
hulk  of  the  little  Revenge.     Poetry  conjures  up  this  storm  as 


254  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

an  avenging  Nemesis.  Out  of  the  lands  they  had  ruined 
comes  the  storm  that  avenges  the  Kevenge. 

L  118. — What  tenderness  is  there  in  that  word  little! 

\.  118-119. — There  is  no  regret  in  these  lines.  On' the 
contrary,  they  are  full  of  exultation.  Kemember,  the  poet 
was  limited  by  history.  He  could  not  save  the  Eevenge,  but 
he  could  sink  her  on  the  spot  where  the  glorious  victory  had 
been  won.  The  picture  of  shattered  greatness  is  not  an 
inspiring  one.  If  the  Revenge  had  not  sunk,  she  would  have 
been  dragged  ignominiously  at  the  hawser's  end  into  some 
Spanish  port,  to  become  the  object  of  every  Spaniard's  petty 
spite,  and  finally  to  fall  into  decay  and  ruin.  Now  she  lives 
evermore  as  she  was  in  that  fight,  a  glorious  inspiration  to 
every  son  of  England. 


HIKTS   OK    EEADIKGS 
YOUNG    LOCHINVAR 

SIR  WALTER  SCOTT 

Oh,  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out  of  the  west, 

Through  all  the  wide  Border  his  steed  was  the  best : 

And  save  his  good  broad-sword  he  weapon  had  none. 

He  rode  all  unarmed,  and  he  rode  all  alone ; 

So  faitiiful  in  love,  and  so  dauntless  in  war, 

There  never  was  knight  like  the  young  Lochinvar !  6 

He  stayed  not  for  brake,  and  he  stopped  not  for  stone, 

He  swam  the  Esk  river  where  ford  there  was  none — 

But,  ere  he  alighted  at  Netherby  gate, 

The  bride  had  consented,  the  gallant  came  late: 

For  a  laggard  in  love  and  a  dastard  in  war. 

Was  to  wed  the  fair  Ellen  of  brave  Lochinvar.  13 

So  boldly  he  entered  the  Netherby  hall, 

'Mong  bride' s-meu,  and  kinsmen,  and  brothers  and  ail: 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  •  255 

Then  spoke  the  bride's  father,  his  hand  on  his  sword — 

For  the  poor  craven  bridegroom  said  never  a  word — 

**0  come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come  ye  in  war? 

Or  to  dance  at  our  bridal,  young  Lord  Lochinvar?"  18 

"I  long  wooed  your  daughter,  my  suit  was  denied ; 

Love  swells  like  the  Sol  way,  but  ebbs  like  its  tide ! 

And  now  am  I  come,  with  this  lost  love  of  mine. 

To  tread  but  one  measure,  drink  one  cup  of  wine ! 

There  be  maidens  in  Scotland,  more  lovely  by  far. 

That  would  gladly  be  bride  to  the  young  Lochinvar."  24 

The  bride  kissed  the  goblet ;  the  knight  took  it  up. 

He  quaffed  off  the  wine,  and  he  threw  down  the  cup ! 

She  looked  down  to  blush,  and  she  looked  up  to  sigh, 

With  a  smile  on  her  lips  and  a  tear  in  her  eye. 

He  took  her  soft  hand  ere  her  mother  could  bar — 

**Now  tread  we  a  measure!"  said  young  Lochinvar.  30 

So  stately  his  form,  and  so  lovely  her  face, 

That  never  a  hall  such  a  galliard  did  grace ! 

While  her  mother  did  fret  and  her  father  did  fume, 

And  the  bridegroom  stood  dangling  his  bonnet  and  plume. 

And  the  bride-maidens  whispered,  "  'Twere  better  by  far. 

To  have  matched  our  fair  cousin  to  young  Lochinvar!"         36 

One  touch  to  her  hand,  and  one  w^ord  to  her  ear. 
When  they  reached  the  hall  door,  and  the  charger  stood  near. 
So  light  to  the  croupe  the  fair  lady  he  swung. 
So  light  to  the  saddle  before  her  he  sprung ! 
*'She  is  won!  we  are  gone,  over  bank,  bush,  and  scaur; 
They'll  have  fleet  steeds  that  follow!"  quoth  young  Loch-    42 
invar. 

There  was  mounting  'mong  Graemes  of  the  Netherby  clan ; 

Fosters,  Fen  wicks,  and  Musgraves,  they  rode  and  they  ran ; 

There  was  racing  and  chasing  on  Cannobie  Lea, 

But  the  lost  bride  of  Netherby  ne'er  did  they  see ! 

So  daring  in  love,  and  so  dauntless  in  war. 

Have  ye  e'er  heard  of  gallant  like  young  Lochinvar  1  48 


256  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

We  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  rhythm  is  very 
pronounced.  It  reminds  us  of  the  rhythm  of  The  Ride  from 
Ghent ^  and  suggests,  in  fact,  what  we  soon  discover  to  be 
true,  that  the  two  poems  are  in  spirit  very  closely  allied. 

].  2-6  are  intended  to  win  our  sympathy  for  the  hero. 
Observe  his  courage  in  riding  unarmed  and  alone. 

1.  10. — The  accent  on  gallant  is  on  the  final  syllable. 
Observe  how  the  emphasis  on  -layit^  came^  and  late  retards  the 
movement  and  suggests  the  contrast  between  Lochinvar's  hope 
and  his  failure  to  arrive  in  time. 

1.  11. — Note  the  contempt  in  laggard  a>nd.  dastard.  Also 
in  line  16,  where  the  movement  is  again  retarded. 

1.  19-24. — How  cleverly  Lochinvar  conceals  his  true 
intention,  under  the  guise  of  indifference ! 

1.  20. — Love  swells  like  ocean  tides,  but  diminishes  with 
equal  rapidity :     I  can  get  along  without  your  daughter. 

1.  32. — GalUard:  a  lively  dance. 

1.  33-34. — Bring  out  the  pictures  clearly.     Do  not  slur. 

1.  37. — Accelerate  the  movement,  but  not  with  a  manu- 
factured speed.  Catch  the  spirit  of  haste  and  the  movement 
will  accelerate  itself. 

1.  41-42. — Note  the  triumphant  joy  of  Lochinvar. 

1.  41. — Scaur:  a  steep  bank;  pronounced  scar. 

1.  43-45. — The  lively  movement  continues  throughout 
these  lines. 

1.  46. — This  is  a  summary.  The  time  will  be  slow  when 
we  recognize  and  endeavor  to  express  the  full  import  of  the 


Longfellow's  Peace-Pipe^  from  The  Song  of  Hiawatha.,  is 
particularly  adapted  to  analytic  study.  We  shall  confine  our 
study  principally  to  questions  of  sense  relations,  such  as 
Momentary  Completeness,  Values,  and  the  like. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  257 

THE  PEACE-PIPE 

LONGFELLOW 

On  the  Mountains  of  the  Prairie, 

On  the  great  Red  Pipe-Stone  Quarry, 

Gitche  Manito,  the  mighty, 

He  the  Master  of  Life,  descending, 

On  the  red  crags  of  the  quarry  5 

Stood  erect,  and  called  the  nations. 

Called  the  tribes  of  men  together. 

From  his  footprints  flowed  a  river. 
Leaped  into  the  light  of  morning, 
O'er  the  precipice  plunging  downward  10 

Gleamed  like  Ishkoodah,  the  comet. 
And  the  Spirit,  stooping  earthward, 
With  his  finger  on  the  meadow 
Traced  a  winding  pathway  for  it. 
Saying  to  it,  "Run  in  this  way  I"  15 

From  the  red  stone  of  the  quarry 
With  his  hand  he  broke  a  fragment, 
Moulded  it  into  a  pipe-head. 
Shaped  and  fashioned  it  with  figures ; 
From  the  margin  of  the  river  20 

Took  a  long  reed  for  a  pipe-stem. 
With  its  dark  green  leaves  upon  it ! 
Filled  the  pipe  with  bark  of  willow, 
With  the  bark  of  the  red  willow ; 
Breathed  upon  the  neighboring  forest,  25 

Made  its  great  boughs  chafe  together, 
Till  in  flame  they  burst  and  kindled ; 
And  erect  upon  the  mountains, 
Gitche  Manito,  the  mighty. 

Smoked  the  calumet,  the  Peace-Pipe,  30 

As  a  signal  to  the  nations. 

And  the  smoke  rose  slowly,  slow  ly, 
Through  the  tranquil  air  of  morning, 
First  a  single  line  of  darkness, 

Then  a  denser,  bluer  vapor,  35 

Then  a  snow-white  cloud  unfolding. 
Like  the  tree-tops  of  the  forest, 


258  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Ever  rising,  rising,  rising, 

Till  it  touched  the  top  of  heaven, 

Till  it  broke  against  the  heaven,  40 

And  rolled  outward  all  around  it. 

From  the  Vale  of  Tawasentha, 
From  the  Valley  of  Wyoming, 
From  the  groves  of  Tuscaloosa, 

From  the  far-off  Rocky  Mountains,  45 

From  the  Northern  lakes  and  rivers 
All  the  tribes  beheld  the  signal, 
Saw  the  distant  smoke  ascending. 
The  Pukwana  of  the  Peace -Pipe. 

And  the  Prophets  of  the  nations  50 

Said :  '  'Behold  it,  the  Pukwana ! 
By  this  signal  from  afar  off, 
Bending  like  a  wand  of  willow, 
Waving  like  a  hand  that  beckons, 
Gitche  Manito,  the  mighty,  55 

Calls  the  tribes  of  men  together, 
Calls  the  warriors  to  his  council!" 

Down  the  rivers,  o'er  the  prairies. 
Came  the  warriors  of  the  nations, 
Came  the  Dela wares  and  Mohawks,  60 

Came  the  Choctaws  and  Camanches, 
Came  the  Shoshonies  and  Blackfeet, 
Came  the  Pawnees  and  Omahas, 
Came  the  Mandans  and  Dacotahs, 
Came  the  Hurons  and  O  jib  ways,  65 

All  the  warriors  drawn  together 
By  the  signal  of  the  Peace-Pipe, 
To  the  Mountains  of  the  Prairie, 
To  the  Great  Red  Pipe  Stone  Quarry. 

And  they  stood  there  on  the  meadow,  70 

With  their  weapons  and  their  war-  gear. 
Painted  like  the  leaves  of  Autumn, 
Painted  like  the  sky  of  morning. 
Wildly  glaring  at  each  other ; 

In  their  faces  stern  defiance,  75 

In  their  hearts  the  feuds  of  ages, 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  259 

The  hereditary  hatred, 

The  ancestral  thirst  of  vengeance. 

Gitche  Manito,  the  mighty, 
The  creator  of  the  nations,  80 

Looked  upon  them  with  compassion. 
With  paternal  love  and  pity ; 
Looked  upon  their  wrath  and  wrangling 
But  as  quarrels  among  children, 
But  as  feuds  and  fights  of  children !  85 

Over  them  he  stretched  his  right  hand. 
To  subdue  their  stubborn  natures, 
To  allay  their  thirst  and  fever. 
By  the  shadow  of  his  right  hand ; 
Spake  to  them  with  voice  majestic  90 

As  the  sound  of  far-off  waters, 
Falling  into  deep  abysses. 
Warning,  chiding,  spake  in  this  wise:— 

**0  my  children!  my  poor  children  I 
Listen  to  the  words  of  wisdom,  95 

Listen  to  the  words  of  warning, 
From  the  lips  of  the  Great  Spirit, 
From  the  Master  of  Life,  who  made  you! 

"I  have  given  you  lands  to  hunt  in, 
I  have  given  you  streams  to  fish  in,  100 

I  have  given  you  bear  and  bison, 
I  have  given  you  roe  and  reindeer, 
I  have  given  you  brant  and  beaver, 
Filled  the  marshes  full  of  wild-fowl, 
Filled  the  rivers  full  of  fishes;  106 

Why  then  are  you  not  contented? 
Why  then  will  you  hunt  each  other? 

*'I  am  weary  of  your  quarrels. 
Weary  of  your  wars  and  bloodshed. 
Weary  of  your  prayers  for  vengeance,  110 

Of  your  wranglings  and  dissensions ; 
All  your  strength  is  in  your  union, 
All  your  danger  is  in  discord ; 
Therefore  be  at  peace  henceforward, 
And  as  brothers  live  together.  115 


260  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

"I  will  send  a  Prophet  to  you, 
A  Deliverer  of  the  nations, 
Who  shall  guide  you  and  shall  teach  you, 
Who  shall  toil  and  suffer  with  you. 
If  you  listen  to  his  counsels,  120 

You  will  multiply  and  prosper ; 
If  his  warnings  pass  unheeded, 
You  will  fade  away  and  perish  I 

* 'Bathe  now  in  the  stream  before  you. 
Wash  the  war-paint  from  your  faces,  125 

Wash  the  blood-stains  from  your  fingers, 
Bury  your  war-clubs  and  your  weapons, 
Break  the  red  stone  from  this  quarry, 
Mould  and  make  it  into  Peace -Pipes, 
Take  the  reeds  that  grow  beside  you,  130 

Deck  them  with  your  brightest  feathers, 
Smoke  the  calumet  together. 
And  as  brothers  live  henceforward!" 

Then  upon  the  ground  the  warriors 
Threw  their  cloaks  and  shirts  of  deer-skin,  135 

Threw  their  weapons  and  their  war-gear. 
Leaped  into  the  rushing  river, 
Washed  the  war-paint  from  their  faces. 
Clear  above  them  flowed  the  water. 
Clear  and  limpid  from  the  footprints  140 

Of  the  Master  of  Life  descending; 
Dark  below  them  flowed  the  water. 
Soiled  and  stained  with  streaks  of  crimson. 
As  if  blood  were  mingled  with  it ! 

From  the  river  came  the  warriors,  145 

Clean  and  washed  from  all  their  war-paint ; 
On  the  banks  their  clubs  they  buried. 
Buried  all  their  warlike  weapons. 
Gitche  Manitou,  the  mighty, 

The  Great  Spirit,  the  creator,  150 

Smiled  upon  his  helpless  children  I 

And  in  silence  all  the  warriors 
Broke  the  red  stone  of  the  quarry, 
Smoothed  and  formed  it  into  Peace-Pipes, 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  261 

Broke  the  long  reeds  by  the  river,  155 

Decked  them  with  their  brightest  feathers, 
And  departed  each  one  homeward, 
While  the  Master  of  Life,  ascending, 
X  Through  the  opening  of  cloud-curtains, 
Through  the  doorways  of  the  heaven,  160 

Vanished  from  before  their  faces, 
In  the  smoke  that  rolled  around  him, 
The  Pukwana  of  the  Peace-Pipe ! 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  following  notes  will  be  carefully 
considered.  Inflections  are  most  subtle  indications  of  inter- 
pretation, and  their  meaning  none  too  well  apprehended. 
Time  spent  in  such  an  analysis  as  that  herein  undertaken 
should  solve  all  the  ordinary  difficulties  of  the  class-room. 

1.  1. — Incomplete,  hence  rising  inflection*  on  Prairie. 

1.  2. — The  same  inflection  on  Quarry. 

1.  3-5. — {a)  GitcJie  Ifanito  is  the  central  idea;  hence  there 
will  be  more  force  on  those  words,  (b)  'Note  that  descending 
is  separated  from  the  next  line  by  a  comma.  This  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  function  of  punctuation ;  for  if  the  comma 
were  not  inserted  we  should  read,  descending  On  the  red 
crags  of  the  quarry^  and  should  not  learn  of  our  mistake  until 
we  came  to  the  next  line. 

1.  6. — Nations:  falling  inflection.  A  good  illustration  of 
the  principle  that  punctuation  does  not  determine  inflection : 
the  sense  is  complete,  and  the  falling  inflection  instinctively 
denotes  that  fact.  The  whole  paragraph  is  pointing  forward 
to  the  main  statement,  called  the  nations.  There  might  be 
some  reason  in  the  use  of  a  falling  inflection  on  erects  but 
perhaps  the  other  interpretation  is  to  be  preferred. 

♦Let  it  be  understood  once  for  all  that  the  various  elements  in  ex- 
pression should  be  the  spontaneous  outcome  of  the  mental  action.  As 
has  been  so  often  stated,  to  tell  a  pupil  to  use  a  rising"  inflection  or  to 
emphasize  this  word  or  that,  is  a  violation  of  the  fundamental  principle 
of  correct  teaching. 


262  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

1.  8-9. — Falling  inflections  on  river  and  on  morning, 

1.  10. — Eising  inflection  on  dowmvard.  There  is  likeli- 
hood of  misinterpretation  here.  Paraphrased,  lines  10  and  11 
are  equivalent  to,  And  the  river,  plunging  downward  over 
the  precipice,  gleamed  like  Ishkoodah,  the  comet. 

].  11., — Falling  inflection  on  IshhoodaJi^  because  the  river 
did  not  gleam  like  the  comet  Ishkoodah,  but  like  Ishkoodah, 
which  is  the  Indian  name  for  comet. 

1.  12. — Stooping  earthward:  subordinate  idea. 

1.  12-15. — It  is  surprising  how  careless  pupils  are  in  read- 
ing these  lines.  They  nearly  always  read  them  to  convey  the 
idea  that  the  Spirit  stooped  earthward  with  his  finger  on  the 
meadow.  Observe  how  the  meaning  is  brought  out  by  the 
following  reading : 

And  the  Spirit  (pause),  stooping  earthward  (pause) y 
With  his  finger  (pause)  on  the  meadow  (pause)^ 
Traced  a  winding  pathway  for  it  (pause). 
Saying  to  it  (pause) ,  "Kun  in  this  way!" 

1.  17-19. — The  melody  is  virtually  the  same  in  each  of 
these  lines,  with  a  falling  inflection  on  fragment ,  pipe-head 
Sind  figures, 

1.  21. — Kising  inflection  preferable  on  pipe-stem.  The 
poem  abounds  in  lines  ending  with  falling  inflections; 
hence,  one  should  be  on  the  alert  for  such  lines  as  this. 

1.  23. — Falling  inflection  on  willow, 

1.  25-26. — Kising  inflection  on  forest  and  on  together. 
We  note  that  these  two  lines  point  forward. 

L  28-31. — Eising  inflections  throughout,  even  on  calumet , 
upon  which  word  the  pupil  often  errs. 

1.  30. — The  Peace-Pipe  is  not  a  subordinate  idea;  it  is  an 
idea  coordinate  with  calumet. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  263 

1.  32. — Observe  the  rhythmic  change  and  its  meaning. 

1.  33. — Falling  inflection  on  morning.  Lines  32  and  33 
contain  the  general  statement,  and 

1.  34-39  contain  the  particular.  When  we  perceive  this 
latter  fact  we  will  use  the  rising  inflection  at  the  end  of  each 
line  until  we  reach  heaven  in  line  39,  when,  of  course,  we 
shall  have  the  falling. 

1.  37. — Subordinate, 

1.  40. — Observe  that  hrohe  is  the  emphatic  word,  not 
against,     Eising  inflection  on  heaven, 

1.  42-46. — It  is  an  open  question  whether  we  should  use  a 
rising  or  a  falling  inflection  at  the  end  of  each  of  these  lines. 
To  use  the  falling  would  convey  the  idea  that  each  detail  was 
important ;  to  use  the  rising,  to  lay  the  stress  upon  the  whole. 
(See  Momentary  Completeness,  page  61,  et  seq.)  The  former 
reading  seems  the  better. 

1.  51. — ^Falling  inflection  on  Behold  it. 

1.  53-54. — Subordinate. 

1.  56. — ^Falling  inflection  on  together. 

1.  58. — An  interesting  point  is  presented  in  this  line.  The 
poet  intends  to  convey  the  idea  that  some  tribes  came  cloivn 
the  rivers  and  others  o'er  the  prairies.  Hence  the  melody 
and  force  of  the  two  phrases  will  be  identical. 

1.  59. — Falling  inflection  on  nations. 

1.  60-65. — The  most  natural  interpretation  seems  to  be  to 
use  a  rising  inflection  on  the  name  of  the  first  tribe  in  each 
line,  and  a  falling  on  the  second. 

1.  66-67. — Eising  inflection  on  together  and  on  Peace-Pipe. 

1.  68. — ^Falling  inflection  on  Prairie. 

1.  70. — Eising  inflection  on  meadow. 

1.  71-74. — ^Falling  inflection  on  war-gear^  Autumn^ 
morning^  and  other. 

1,  74. — This  is  the  strongest  line  of  the  four. 


264  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

1.  75-76. — Faces  and  liearts  are  not  contrasted.  The 
melody  of  the  two  lines  is  virtually  the  same. 

1.  81. — Falling  inflection  on  compassion. 

1.  86. — Falling  inflection  on  hand  is  to  be  preferred. 

1.  87-89. — These  three  lines  should  be  construed  as  one 
idea.  Hence  rising  inflection  will  be  given  on  natures  and 
on  fever. 

1.  90-93. — Eising  inflections  on  majestic^  waters^  iDarn-, 
ing.,  cJiiding.  Why?  Falling  inflection  on  abysses. 
Why? 

1.  94. — Does  he  use  rising  inflection  or  falling  on  cMU 
dren?  What  would  be  the  difference  in  the  idea  conveyed  by 
each? 

1.  95-96. — Do  these  lines  mean  ''Will  you  not  listen?" 
If  so  they  are  full  of  pleading.  If  the  speaker  is  imperative 
the  inflection  will  be  falling. 

1.  98. — Falling  inflection  on  Life.  Observe  how  meaning- 
ful are  the  words  wlio  made  you. 

1.  99-105. — Shall  there  be  rising  or  falling  inflection  at 
the  end  of  these  lines?     What  would  each  convey  respectively? 

1.  112. — Observe  the  radical  change  in  the  speaker's 
attitude.  He  has  been  asserting;  now  he  argues  and 
pleads. 

1.  116-117. — Falling  inflection  on  you  and  on  nations. 

1.  118. — Rising  inflection  on  guide. 

1.  119. — Toil  and  suffer  should  be  joined  together,  with 
the  main  pause  after  suffer.     Do  not  emphasize  with. 

1.  121. — Rising  inflection  on  multiply. 

1.  122. — Note  the  contrast  on  unheeded. 

1.  124-127. — Falling  inflection  on  all  the  emphatic  words. 
There  will  be  a  tendency  to  use  the  rising  inflection  on  war- 
painty  bloodstains^  ivar-clubs. 

1,  128. — Rising  inflection  on  quarry.     Why? 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  265 

1.  130. — Eising  inflection  on  you. 

1.  131. — Falling  inflection  on  feathers. 

1.  133. — Principal  pause  after  Irothers^  with  perhaps  a 
brief  pause  after  live. 

1.  134. — Short  pause  after  then;  longer  after  ground. 

1.  135. — Eising  inflection  on  deer-shin  seems  preferable. 

1.  136. — Falling  inflection  on  war-gear. 

1.  138. — Falling  inflection  onfaces^ 

1.  139. — ^Falling  inflection  on  water. 

1.  140. — Falling  inflection  on  limpid. 

1.  142. — Eising  inflection  on  water. 

1.  143-144. — Falling  inflection  on  crimson  and  on  Hood. 

1.  134-144. — This  is  the  climax  of  the  poem.  When  one 
grasps  this  idea  the  voice  becomes  full  of  joy.  Be  sure  to  get 
the  picture  of  the  clear  and  limpid  water  as  it  flows  down  to 
where  the  warriors  are,  and  note  the  change  as  it  passes  lelow 
them,  tinged  with  the  war-paint  it  has  washed  away.  Note 
the  emphasis  on  clear  above^  and  on  darh  lelow, 

1.  145. — Eising  inflection  on  warriors. 

1.  148. — Falling  inflection  on  weapons. 

1.  149-150. — Eising  inflection  on  mighty  and  on  creator. 

1.  151. — Falling  inflection  on  smiled. 

1.  152. — Pause  after  silence;  rising  inflection  on  warriors. 

1.  153. — ^Eising  inflection  on  quarry. 

1.  154.— Falling  inflection  on  Peace-Pipes. 

1.  155-156. — Eising  inflection  on  river ^  feathers. 

1.  158.— Note  the  pause  after  ascending.  He  ascended 
through  and  vanished  in. 

1.  158-160. — Eising  inflection  on  Life^  ascending^  cur- 
tains^ and  heaven. 

1.  161. — ^Falling  inflection  on  vanished;  rising  on  faces. 

1.  162. — It  seems  that  the  rising  inflection  would  be 
preferable  on  him. 


266  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

In  the  following  poem  it  is  purposed  to  offer  comments 
principally  as  to  the  movement.  There  is  nothing  that  con- 
duces more  to  variety  in  reading  than  frequent  changes  in 
movement.  Not  thafc  these  changes  should  be  haphazard;  on 
the  contrary,  as  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  I,  there  is  a  definite 
principle  underlying  movement.  The  analysis  should  reveal 
that  the  various  ideas  are  of  different  degrees  of  importance, 
and  the  recognition  of  these  differences  will  lead  to  the 
variety  of  movement. 

Attention  is  also  directed  to  transitions,  and  occasionally 
to  the  atmosphere. 

Every  comment  should  be  carefully  considered  and  chal- 
lenged. The  printed  page  is  a  monochrome  of  type.  The 
danger  is,  therefore,  that  we  read  monotonously.  With  the 
years  we  acquire  a  fatal  facility  for  pronouncing  words  with- 
out getting  the  underlying  thought.  The  object  of  these 
analyses  is  to  take  the  mind  from  the  words  to  the  ideas  which 
they  express,  and  so  to  improve  the  reading. 

HORATIUS 

A  LAY  MADE  ABOUT  THE  YEAR  OF  THE  CITY  CCCIX 
I* 

Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium 

By  the  Nine  Gods  he  swore 
That  the  great  house  of  Tarquin 

Should  suffer  wrong  no  more. 
By  the  Nine  Gods  he  swore  it,  5 

And  named  a  trysting  day, 
And  bade  his  messengers  ride  forth. 
East  and  west  and  south  and  north, 

To  summon  his  array. 


*The  stanzas  are  numbered  as  in  the  original  poem. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  267 

XI 

And  now  hath  every  city  10 

Sent  up  her  tale  of  men : 
The  foot  are  fourscore  thousand. 

The  horse  are  thousands  ten. 
Before  the  gates  of  Sutrium 

Is  met  the  great  array.  15 

A  proud  man  was  Lars  Porsena 

Upon  the  trysting  day. 

XII 

For  all  the  Etruscan  armies 

Were  rangec^  beneath  his  eye, 
And  many  a  banished  Roman,  20 

And  many  a  stout  ally ; 
And  with  a  mighty  following 

To  join  the  muster  came 
The  Tusculan  Mamilius, 

Prince  of  the  Latian  name.  25 

XIII 

But  by  the  yellow  Tiber 

Was  tumult  and  affright : 
From  all  the  spacious  champaign 

To  Rome  men  took  their  flight. 
A  mile  around  the  city,  30 

The  throng  stopped  up  the  ways: 
A  fearful  sight  it  was  to  see 

Through  two  long  nights  and  days. 

XIV 
For  aged  folks  on  crutches. 

And  women  great  with  child,  35 

And  mothers  sobbing  over  babes 

That  clung  to  them  and  smiled. 
And  sick  men  borne  in  litters 

High  on  the  necks  of  slaves, 
And  troops  of  sunburned  husbandmen  40 

With  reaping-hooks  and  staves, 


268  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

XV 

And  droves  of  mules  and  asses 

Laden  with  skins  of  wine, 
And  endless  flocks  of  goats  and  sheep, 

And  endless  herds  of  kine,  45 

And  endless  trains  of  wagons 

That  creaked  beneath  the  weight 
Of  corn  sacks  and  of  household  goods, 

Choked  every  roaring  gate. 

XVI 
Now,  from  the  rock  Tarpeian,  50 

Could  the  wan  burghers  spy 
The  line  of  blazing  villages 

Red  in  the  midnight  sky. 
The  Fathers  of  the  city, 

They  sat  all  night  and  day ;  55 

For  every  hour  some  horseman  came 

With  tidings  of  dismay. 


XIX 
They  held  a  council,  standing 

Before  the  River-Gate : 
Short  time  was  there,  ye  may  well  guess,  60 

For  musing  or  debate. 
Out  spake  the  Consul  roundly : 

"The  bridge  must  straight  go  down; 
For,  since  Janiculum  is  lost. 

Naught  else  can  save  the  town."  65 

XX 
Just  then  a  scout  came  flying, 

All  wild  with  haste  and  fear: 
* 'To  arms!  to  arms!  Sir  Consul: 

Lars  Porsena  is  here," 
On  the  low  hills  to  westward  70 

The  Consul  fixed  his  eye. 
And  saw  the  swarthy  storm  of  dust 

Rise  fast  along  the  sky. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  269 

XXI 

And  nearer  fast,  and  nearer, 

Doth  the  red  whirlwind  come ;  75 

And  louder  still,  and  still  more  loud, 
From  underneath  that  rolling  cloud, 
Is  heard  the  trumpet's  war-note  proud, 

The  trampling  and  the  hum. 
And  plainly,  and  more  plainly,  80 

Now  through  the  gloom  appears, 
Far  to  left,  and  far  to  right. 
In  broken  gleams  of  dark-blue  light, 
The  long  array  of  helmets  bright. 

The  long  array  of  spears.  85 


XXV 

But  when  the  face  of  Sextus 

Was  seen  among  the  foes, 
A  yell  that  rent  the  firmament 

From  all  the  town  arose. 
On  the  housetops  was  no  woman  90 

But  spat  towards  him,  and  hissed; 
No  child  but  screamed  out  curses, 

And  shook  its  little  fist. 

XXVI 
But  the  Consul's  brow  was  sad, 

And  the  Consul's  speech  was  low;  95 

And  darkly  looked  he  at  the  wall. 

And  darkly  at  the  foe. 
**Their  van  will  be  upon  us 

Before  the  bridge  goes  down ; 
And  if  they  once  may  win  the  bridge,  100 

What  hope  to  save  the  town?" 

XXVII 
Then  out  spake  brave  Horatius, 

The  Captain  of  the  Gate : 
"To  every  man  upon  this  earth. 

Death  cometh  soon  or  late.  105 


270  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  how  can  man  die  better 
Than  facing  fearful  odds 

For  the  ashes  of  his  fathers, 
And  the  temples  of  his  gods, 


XXIX 
"Hew  down  the  bridge,  Sir  Consul,  110 

With  all  the  speed  ye  may : 
I,  with  two  more  to  help  me, 

Will  hold  the  foe  in  play. 
In  yon  strait  path  a  thousand 

May  well  be  stopped  by  three.  115 

Now,  who  will  stand  on  either  hand, 

And  keep  the  bridge  with  me?" 

XXX 

Then  out  spake  Spurius  Lartius, — 

A  Ramnian  proud  was  he, — 
"Lo,  I  will  stand  at  thy  right  hand,  120 

And  keep  the  bridge  with  thee.'' 
And  out  spake  strong  Herminius, — 

Of  Titian  blood  was  he, — 
**I  will  abide  on  thy  left  side, 

And  keep  the  bridge  with  thee. "  125 

XXXI 
**Horatius,"  quoth  the  Consul, 

*'As  thou  say  est,  so  let  it  be." 
And  straight  against  that  great  array 

Forth  went  the  dauntless  Three. 
For  Romans  in  Rome's  quarrel  180 

Spared  neither  land  nor  gold. 
Nor  son  nor  wife,  nor  limb  nor  life, 

In  the  brave  days  of  old. 


XXXIV 
Now,  while  the  Three  were  tightening 
Their  harness  on  their  backs,  135 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  271 

The  Consul  was  the  foremost  man 

To  take  in  hand  an  axe. 
And  Fathers  mixed  with  commons 

Seized  hatchet,  bar,  and  crow, 
And  smote  upon  the  planks  abover  140 

And  loosed  the  props  below. 

XXXV 

Meanwhile  the  Tuscan  army, 

Right  glorious  to  behold, 
Come  flashing  back  the  noonday  light. 
Rank  behind  rank,  like  surges  bright  145 

Of  a  broad  sea  of  gold. 
Four  hundred  trumpets  sounded 

A  peal  of  warlike  glee. 
As  that  great  host,  with  measured  tread. 
And  spears  advanced,  and  ensigns  spread,  150 

Rolled  slowly  towards  the  bridge's  head, 

Where  stood  the  dauntless  Three. 

XXXVI 
The  Three  stood  calm  and  silent, 

And  looked  upon  the  foes, 
And  a  great  shout  of  laughter  165 

From  all  the  vanguard  rose: 
And  forth  three  chiefs  came  spurring 

Before  that  deep  array ; 
To  earth  they  sprang,  their  swords  they  drew, 
And  lifted  high  their  shields,  and  flew  160 

To  win  the  narrow  way. 


XXXVIII 

Stout  Lartius  hurled  down  Aunus 

Into  the  stream  beneath ; 
Herminius  struck  at  Seius, 

And  clove  him  to  the  teeth;  165 

At  Picus  brave  Horatius 

Darted  one  fiery  thrust, 


^72  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  the  proud  Umbrian's  gilded  arms 
Clashed  in  the  bloody  dust. 


XL 

Herminius  smote  down  Aruns;  170 

Lartius  laid  Ocnus  low ; 
Right  to  the  heart  of  Lausulus 

Horatius  sent  a  blow. 
"Lie  there,"  he  cried,  "fell  pirate! 

No  more,  aghast  and  pale,  175 

From  Ostia's  walls  the  crowd  shall  mark 
The  track  of  thy  destroying  bark. 
No  more  Campania's  hinds  shall  fly 
To  woods  and  caverns  when  they  spy 

Thy  thrice  accursed  sail."  180 

XLI 

But  now  no  sound  of  laughter 

Was  heard  among  the  foes. 
A  wild  and  wrathful  clamor 

From  all  the  vanguard  rose. 
Six  spears'  lengths  from  the  entrance  185 

Halted  that  deep  array, 
And  for  a  space  no  man  came  forth 

To  win  the  narrow  way. 

XLII 
But  hark !  the  cry  is  Astur ; 

And  lo !  the  ranks  divide,  190 

And  the  great  Lord  of  Luna 

Comes  with  his  stately  stride. 
Upon  his  ample  shoulders 

Clangs  loud  the  fourfold  shield. 
And  in  his  hand  he  shakes  the  brand  195 

Which  none  but  he  can  wield. 

XLIII 

He  smiled  on  those  bold  Romans, 
A  smile  serene  and  high. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  273 

He  eyed  the  flinching  Tuscans, 

And  scorn  was  in  his  eye.  200 

Quoth  he,  "The  she- wolf  s  litter 

Stand  savagely  at  bay ; 
But  will  ye  dare  to  follow 

If  Astur  clears  the  way?'* 

XLIV 
Then,  whirling  up  his  broadsword  205 

With  both  hands  to  the  height, 
He  rushed  against  Horatius, 

And  smote  with  all  his  might. 
With  shield  and  blade  Horatius 

Right  deftly  turned  the  blow.  210 

The  blow,  though  turned,  came  yet  too  nigh : 
It  missed  his  helm,  but  gashed  his  thigh. 
The  Tuscans  raised  a  joyful  cry 

To  see  the  red  blood  flow. 

XLV 

He  reeled,  and  on  Herminius  215 

He  leaned  one  breathing-space, 
Then,  like  a  wild-cat  mad  with  wounds. 

Sprang  right  at  Astur's  face. 
Through  teeth  and  skull  and  helmet, 

So  fierce  a  thrust  he  sped,  220 

The  good  sword  stood  a  hand-breadth  out 

Behind  the  Tuscan's  head. 

XLVI 
And  the  great  Lord  of  Luna 

Fell  at  that  deadly  stroke, 
As  falls  on  Mount  Alvernus  225 

A  thunder-smitten  oak. 


XLVII 

On  Astur's  throat  Horatius 
Right  firmly  pressed  his  heel, 


274  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

And  thrice  and  four  times  tugged  amain. 
Ere  he  wrenched  out  the  steel.  230 

"And  see,"  he  cried,  **the  welcome. 
Fair  guests,  that  waits  you  here  I 

What  noble.  Lucumo  comes  next 
To  taste  our  Roman  cheer?" 


LI 

Yet  one  man  for  one  moment  235 

Strode  out  before  the  crowd : 
Well  known  was  he  to  all  the  Three, 

And  they  gave  him  greeting  loud. 
**Now  welcome,  welcome,  Sextus! 

Now  welcome  to  thy  home !  240 

Why  dost  thou  stay,  and  turn  away? 

Here  lies  the  road  to  Rome.*' 

LII 

Thrice  looked  he  at  the  city; 

Thrice  looked  he  at  the  dead ; 
And  thrice  came  on  in  fury,  245 

And  thrice  turned  back  in  dread. 
And,  white  with  fear  and  hatred, 

Scowled  at  the  narrow  way, 
Where,  wallowing  in  a  pool  of  blood, 

The  bravest  Tuscans  lay.  260 

LIII 

But  meanwhile  axe  and  lever 

Have  manfully  been  plied ; 
And  now  the  bridge  hangs  tottering 

Above  the  boiling  tide. 
"Come  back,  come  back,  Horatiusl"  255 

Loud  cried  the  Fathers  all. 
"Back,  Lartius!  back,  HerminiusI 

Back,  ere  the  ruin  fall!" 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  275 

LIV 
Back  darted  Spurius  Lartius: 

Herminius  darted  back:  260 

And,  as  they  passed,  beneath  their  feet 

They  felt  the  timbers  crack. 
But  when  they  turned  their  faces. 

And  on  the  farther  shore 
Saw  brave  Horatius  stand  alone,  265 

They  would  have  crossed  once  more. 

LV 
But  with  a  crash  like  thunder 

Fell  every  loosened  beam, 
And,  like  a  dam,  the  mighty  wreck 

Lay  right  athwart  the  stream:  270 

And  a  long  shout  of  triumph 

Rose  from  the  walls  of  Rome, 
As  to  the  highest  turret-tops 

Was  splashed  the  yellow  foam. 

LVI 
And  like  a  horse  unbroken,  275 

When  first  he  feels  the  rein, . 
The  furious  river  struggled  hard, 

And  tossed  his  tawny  mane. 
And  burst  the  curb,  and  bounded, 

Rejoicing  to  be  free,  280 

And  whirling  down,  in  fierce  career, 
Battlement  and  plank  and  pier. 

Rushed  headlong  to  the  sea. 

LVII 
Alone  stood  brave  Horatius, 

But  constant  still  in  mind;  285 

Thrice  thirty  thousand  foes  before. 

And  the  broad  flood  behind. 
"Down  with  him  I"  cried  false  Sextus, 

With  a  smile  on  his  pale  face. 
'*Now  yield  thee,"  cried  Lars  Porsena,  S90 

"Now  yield  thee  to  our  grace," 


276  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

LVIII 

Round  turned  he,  as  not  deigning 

Those  craven  ranks  to  see; 
Naught  spake  he  to  Lars  Porsena, 

To  Sextus  naught  spake  he;  295 

But  he  saw  on  Palatinus 

The  white  porch  of  his  home. 
And  he  spake  to  the  noble  river  * 

That  rolls  by  the  towers  of  Rome. 

LIX 

"O  Tiber!  father  Tiber  I  300 

To  whom  the  Romans  pray, 
A  Roman's  life,  a  Roman's  arms, 

Take  thou  in  charge  this  day!" 
So  he  spake,  and,  speaking,  sheathed 

The  good  sword  by  his  side,  805 

And  with  his  harness  on  his  back. 

Plunged  headlong  in  the  tide. 

LX 
No  sound  of  joy  or  sorrow 

Was  heard  from  either  bank: 
But  friends  and  foes  in  dumb  surprise,  310 

With  parted  lips  and  straining  eyes, 

Stood  gazing  where  he  sank ; 
And  when  above  the  surges. 

They  saw  his  crest  appear, 
AH  Rome  sent  forth  a  rapturous  cry,  315 

And  even  the  ranks  of  Tuscany 

Could  scarce  forbear  to  cheer 

LXI 
But  fiercely  ran  the  current. 

Swollen  high  by  months  of  rain: 
And  fast  his  blood  was  flowing,  820 

And  he  was  sore  in  pain, 
And  heavy  with  his  armor, 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  277 

And  spent  with  changing  blows; 
And  oft  they  thought  him  sinking, 
But  still  again  he  rose.  325 


LXIII 
"Curse  on  him  I"  quoth  false  Sextus: 

**Will  not  the  villain  drown? 
But  for  this  stay,  ere  close  of  day 

We  should  have  sacked  the  town!" 
"Heaven  help  him  I"  quoth  Lars  Porsena,  330 

"And  bring  him  safe  to  shore; 
For  such  a  gallant  feat  of  arms 

Was  never  seen  before." 

LXIV 

And  now  he  feels  the  bottom ; 

Now  on  dry  earth  he  stands ;  335 

Now  round  him  throng  the  Fathers, 

To  press  his  gory  hands ; 
And  now,  with  shouts  and  clapping, 

And  noise  of  weeping  loud, 
He  enters  through  the  River-Gate,  340 

Borne  by  the  joyous  crowd. 


Stanza  I 

1.  1-4. — The  exalted  position  of  Lars  Porsena,  the  oath, 
and  the  grandeur  of  the  Tarqiiin  house,  all  contribute  to  make 
the  movement  slow  and  the  atmosphere  dignified. 

1.  6. — Note  the  repetition  and  its  effect  on  the  movement. 

1.  7. — Kather  fast. 

1.  8. — According  to  the  importance  we  attach  to  this  line 
will  be  the  rate  of  movement.  If  it  means  simply  in  all 
directions,  the  time  will  be  moderate.  If,  however,  we  desire 
to  emphasize  that  the  messengers  rode  far  to  the  east,  and  far 
to  the  west,  and  so  forth,  the  time  will  be  slow.  Probably 
the  former  is  the  better  interpretation. 


278  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Stanza  XI 
Colloquial  style  and  moderate  time  prevail  throughout  the 
stanza  except  in 

1.  16,  where  the  transition  is  marked. 

Stanza   XII 
The  atmosphere  is  that  of  the  pride  of  Porsena  in  his  army. 

Stanza  XIII 

1.  26. — Observe  the  transition  to  the  atmosphere  of  fright 
and  terror  that  pervades  the  entire  stanza. 

1.  30. — Conceive  that  mass  of  humanity  and  note  how  the 
length  of  the  inflection  on  mile  is  extended. 

1.  33. — ^Very  slow;  each  day  and  each  night  seems  to  be 
endless. 

Stanzas  XIV  and  XV 

Observe  that  the  principal  verb  does  not  appear  until  line 
49,  Hence  there  will  be  a  rising  inflection  at  the  end  of 
every  line  of  these  stanzas  except  49. 

The  movement  is  rather  fast  and  the  atmosphere  that  of 
despair, 

1.  49. — ^Very  slow. 

Stanza  XVI 
L  50-54. — Narrative  style. 
1.  55.— Slow. 
L  b%. — Note  the  longer  inflections  on  every  hour. 

Stanza   XIX 
1.  58. — Be  careful  to  separate  the  last  two  words. 
1.  63. — Slower  time  and  marked  transition. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  279 

Stanza   XX 

1.  66-67. — Fast  time ;  not  in  imitation  of  the  speed  of  the 
scout,  but  in  sympathy  with  his  feelings. 

1.  68-69. — No  effort  should  be  made  to  shriek  these  words; 
it  is  sufficient  to  suggest  the  fact  that  he  is  calling,  and  his 
fear.     The  time  will  be  fast. 

1.  70. — Observe  the  change  in  time  and  atmosphere. 

1.  73. — A  good  illustration  of  the  principle  underlying 
movement.  This  line  is  read  slowly,  for  it  announces  the 
doom  of  the  city. 

Stanza  XXI 

1.  74-75. — Moderate  time. 

1.  76-79. — IS'ote  that  the  time  grows  gradually  slower  as  the 
mind  becomes  more  and  more  engrossed  with  the  picture,  and 
how  the  voice  swells  with  increasing  grandeur. 

1.  80-85. — Prevailingly  moderate  movement. 

1.  84. — Eising  inflection  on  hrigJit  because  the  speaker  no 
doubt  has  in  mind  the  two  lines,  84  and  85. 

Stanza  XXV 
The  hatred  and  contempt  of  the  speaker  will  color  the 
entire  stanza.     The  movement  will  be  on  the  whole  moderate. 
1.  88.— Slow. 

Stanza  XXVI 
I.  94. — Slower  time,  and  an  atmosphere  of  sadness.     Bear 
in  mind  the  speaker  sympathizes  with  the  Consul. 
1.  98. — Despair  and  sadness. 

Stanza  XXVII 

1.  102-103. — Manifest  the  speaker's  pride  in  Horatius,  and 
note  the  striking  contrast  between  the  atmosphere  of  these  lines 
and  that  of  the  concluding  lines  of  the  preceding  stanza. 

1.  104-109. — Solemn  and  deliberate. 


280  HEADING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Stanza  XXIX 
1.  110-115. — Note  the  change  in  Horatius* 
1.  116-117. — As  if  addressing  the  crowd;  a  marked  transi- 
tion. 

Stanza  XXX 
A  good  study  in  variety;    nearly  every  line  presents  a 
change  of  atmosphere. 

Stanza  XXXI 
1.  126-127. — ^Very  deliberately  the  Consul  speaks.     Why? 
What  are  his  feelings? 

1.  128-129. — Observe  the  patriotic  ring  in  the  speaker's 
words. 

Stanza    XXXIV 
The  stanza  is  in  simple  narrative  style,  and  contains  but 
little  emotion.     The  significant  idea  is  that  the  patricians  in 
this  hour  of  trial  worked  side  by  side  with  plebeians. 

Stanza  XXXV 
The  time  is  moderate  at  the  beginning,  becoming  gi^adually 
slower  to  the  end. 

Observe  the  change  in  atmosphere  in  the  last  line.  Once 
more  it  is  well  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  speaker  is  a 
patriot. 

Stanza     XXXVI 
The  movement  of  the  first  two  lines  is  rather  slow;  after 
that  it  accelerates  to  the  end,  in  sympathy  with  the  fast  mov- 
ing picture. 

Stanza    XXXVIII 
The  atmosphere  is  that  of  struggle  and  of  the  joy  of  vic- 
tory. 

The  time  will  be  rather  fast,  retarding  towards  the  close. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  281 

Stanza    XL 
1.  170-173. — See  note  on  preceding  stanza. 
1.  174. — Transition.     Observe  the  hate  of  Horatius. 

Stanza    XLI 
The  time  is    prevailingly  slow,  and  the  atmosphere  in 
marked  contrast  to  that  of  the  preceding  stanza.     There  is, 
too,  a  note  of  contempt  and  irony. 

Stanza    XLII 

1.  189. — Abrupt  transition  to  atmosphere  of  what  is  almost 
fear.     Time  fast. 

1.  190-196. — Time  slow,  and  atmosphere  in  sympathy  with 
the  size  and  strength  of  Astur. 

Stanza    XLIII 
1.  197-198. — Observe    the    contrast    between    the  atmos- 
phere of  these  lines  and  that  of  the  succeeding  two, 
1.  201-202. — Astur 's  contempt  for  his  own  allies. 
1.  203.— Boastfully. 

Stanza     XLIV 

1,  205-208.— Fast  and  strong. 

1.  209-210.— Fast. 

1.  211-212. — Slower,  and  note  change  in  feeling:  Horatius 
is  wounded. 

1.  213-214. — The  joy  of  the  enemy  serves  but  to  increase 
the  speaker's  sorrow. 

Stanza    XLV 
1.  217-222. — 'Note  the  intensity  of  the  speaker's  feeling 
and  his  savage  joy  at  the  close. 


282  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Stanza     XLYI 
Slow  time  throiighout. 

Stanza    XLVII 

1.  227. — Moderate  time. 

1.  231-234. — Transition  to  the  prond  and  contemptuous 
defiance  of  Horatius.  The  time  is  moderate;  the  key  is  high, 
because  Horatius  is  calling  to  the  opposing  army. 

Stanza    LI 
1.  235-236. — Simple  narrative. 
1.  237-238.— Contemptuous. 
1.  239-242. — Sarcastic  throughout.     Time  quite  slow. 

Stanza   LII 

1.  246. — ^Very  slow  and  contemptuous,  especially  the  last 
four  words.     Falling  inflection  on  dread. 

Stanza    LIII 
1.  251. — Note  the  transition. 
1.  251-254.— Eather  fast. 

1.  255. — Suggest  the  sustained  call  and  the  warning. 
1.  256. — Subordinate. 
1.  257-258. — Faster  and  with  greater  trepidation. 

Stanza    LIV 
1.  259-262.— Fast. 
1.  263.— Transition. 

Stanza    LV 

This  stanza  is  the  climax  of  the  poem.  Horatius'  work  is. 
done !     The  atmosphere  is  that  of  joy,  triumph,  and  exultation. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  283 

Stanza    LVI 
The  excitement  of  the  speaker  carries  him  on  with  head- 
long speed  as  he  recalls  the  picture  described  in  this  stanza. 

Stanza    LVII 
1.  284. — The  excitement  subsides. 
1.  286-287.— No  hope. 

1.  289. — What  is  the  emotion  of  Sextus?     Note  the  smile, 
1.  290. — Observe  the  difference  between  Lars  Porsena  and 
Sextus  in  their  feelings  toward  Horatius. 

Stanza    LVIII 
1.  292. — Slower  time.     Is  there  not  a  note  of  pride  in  the 
speaker's  voice  as  he  recalls  the  bravery  of  Horatius? 
1.  297-299.— Tender  and  slow. 

Stanza    LIX 

1.  300-303.— Slow  and  reverential. 

1.  304-307. — Rather  fast,  with  pause  before  and  after 
headlong. 

Stanza  LX 

1.  308-312.— Eather  slow. 

1.  313. — Note  transition  to  the  feeling  of  joy. 

Stanza   LXI 

The  entire  stanza  is  permeated  with  the  speaker's  suspense 
and  with  his  sympathy  with  the  struggles  of  the  wounded 
man. 

Stanza  LXIII 

Observe  again  the  contrast  between  Sextus  and  Lars  Por- 
sena, both  enemies  of  Horatius. 


284  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Stanza  LXIV 

If  we  will  follow  the  picture  and  describe  it  as  we  see  it 
and  as  the  speaker  now  recalls  it,  we  will  make  long  pauses 
after  lottom  and  stands. 

The  time  increases  in  rapidity  through  the  first  four  lines, 
and  then  is  retarded  to  the  end. 

The  atmosphere  of  the  first  four  lines  is  that  of  joy,  and  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  keep  back  the  tears  as  we  utter  the  last 
four. 

In  the  final  selection  we  shall  call  attention  to  all  the 
interpretative  difficulties  which  the  teacher  is  likely  to  meet 
with  in  the  class-room.  There  is  no  reason  why  such  a  piece 
of  literature  as  this  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  even  in  the 
public  school,  provided  we  take  the  time  for  careful  analysis. 

JULIUS  CAESAR.— Shakespeare 

Act  IV.,  Scene  3 

Brutus's  Tent 

Enter  Brutus  and  Cassius 

Cas.     That  you  have  wrong' d  me  doth  appear  in  this; 
You  have  condemn' d  and  noted  Lucius  Pella 
For  taking  bribes  here  of  the  Sardians ; 
Wherein  my  letters,  praying  on  his  side. 
Because  I  knew  the  man,  were  slighted  off. 

Bru.     You  wrong' d  yourself  to  write  in  such  a  case. 

Cas.     In  such  a  time  as  this  it  is  not  meet 
That  every  nice  offence  should  bear  his  comment. 

Bru.     Let  me  tell  you,  Cassius,  you  yourself 
Are  much  condemn'd  to  have  an  itching  palm;  10 

To  sell  and  mart  your  offices  for  gold 
To  undeservers. 

Cas.  I  an  itching  palm ! 

You  know  that  you  are  Brutus  that  speak  this. 
Or,  by  the  gods,  this  speech  were  else  your  last. 

Bru,    The  name  of  Cassius  honours  this  corruption, 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  285 

And  chastisement  doth  therefore  hide  his  head. 

Cas.     Chastisement ! 

Bru.     Remember  March,  the  ides  of  March  remember. 
Did  not  great  Julius  bleed  for  justice  sake? 
What  villain  touch' d  his  body,  that  did  stab,  20 

And  not  for  justice?    What,  shall  one  of  us, 
That  struck  the  foremost  man  of  all  this  world 
But  for  supporting  robbers,  shall  we  now 
Contaminate  our  fingers  with  base  bribes, 
And  sell  the  mighty  space  of  our  large  honours 
For  so  much  trash  as  may  be  grasped  thus? 
I  had  rather  be  a  dog,  and  bay  the  moon. 
Than  such  a  Roman. 

Cas.  Brutus,  bay  not  me ; 

I'll  not  endure  it;  you  forget  yourself. 

To  hedge  me  in ;  I  am  a  soldier,  I,  80 

Older  in  practice,  abler  than  yourself 
To  make  conditions. 

Bru.  Go  to ;  you  are  not,  Cassius, 

Cas.    I  am. 

Bru.    I  say  you  are  not. 

Cas.    Urge  me  no  more,  I  shall  forget  myself; 
Have  mind  upon  your  health,  tempt  me  no  farther. 

Bru.     Away,  slight  man! 

Cas.    Is't  possible? 

Bru.  Hear  me,  for  I  will  speak. 

Must  I  give  way  and  room  to  your  rash  choler? 
Shall  I  be  frighted  when  a  madman  stares?  40 

Cas.     O  ye  gods,  ye  gods  I  must  I  endure  all  this? 

Bru.     All  this !  ay,  more :  fret  till  your  proud  heart  break ; 
Go  show  your  slaves  how  choleric  you  are, 
And  make  your  bondmen  tremble.     Must  I  budge? 
Must  I  observe  you?  must  I  stand  and  crouch 
Under  your  testy  himaour?    By  the  gods. 
You  shall  digest  the  venom  of  your  spleen. 
Though  it  do  split  you;  for,  from  this  day  forth, 
I'll  use  you  for  my  mirth,  yea,  for  my  laughter, 
When  you  are  waspish. 

Cas.  Is  it  come  to  this?  50 


286  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Bru.    You  say  you  are  a  better  soldier ; 
Let  it  appear  so ;  make  your  vaunting  true, 
And  it  shall  please  me  well :  for  mine  own  part, 
I  shall  be  glad  to  learn  of  noble  men. 

Cas.     You  wrong  me  every  way ;  you  wrong  me,  Brutus ; 
I  said,  an  elder  soldier,  not  a  better : 
Did  I  say  'better'? 

Bru.  If  you  did,  I  care  not. 

Cas.     When  Caesar  lived,  he  durst  not  thus  have  moved  me. 

Bru.     Peace,  peace !  you  durst  not  so  have  tempted  him. 

Cas.     I  durst  not!  60 

Bru.    No. 

Cas.     What,  durst  not  tempt  him ! 

Bru.  For  your  life  you  durst  not. 

Cas.     Do  not  presume  too  much  upon  my  love ; 
I  may  do  that  I  shall  be  sorry  for. 

Bru.     You  have  done  that  ycu  should  be  sorry  for. 
There  is  no  terror,  Cassius,  in  your  threats, 
For  I  am  arm'd  so  strong  in  honesty 
That  they  pass  by  me  as  the  idle  wind. 
Which  I  respect  not.     I  did  send  to  you 

For  certain  sums  of  gold,  which  you  denied  me:  70 

For  I  can  raise  no  money  by  vile  means : 
By  heaven,  I  had  rather  coin  my  heart. 
And  drop  my  blood  for  drachmas,  than  to  wring 
From  the  hard  hands  of  peasants  their  vile  trash 
By  any  indirection :  I  did  send 
To  you  for  gold  to  pay  my  legions. 
Which  you  denied  me :  was  that  done  like  Cassius? 
Should  I  have  answer 'd  Caius  Cassius  so? 
When  Marcus  Brutus  grows  so  covetous, 

To  lock  such  rascal  counters  from  his  friends,  80 

Be  ready,  gods,  with  all  your  thunderbolts ; 
Dash  him  to  pieces  1 

Cas.  I  denied  you  not. 

Bru.     You  did. 

Cas.     I  did  not :  he  was  but  a  fool  that  brought 
My  answer  back.  ~  Brutus  hath  rived  my  heart : 
A  friend  should  bear  his  friend's  infirmities, 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  287 

But  Brutus  makes  mine  greater  than  they  are. 

Bru.     I  do  not,  till  you  practise  them  on  me. 

Cas.    You  love  me  not. 

Bru.  I  do  not  like  your  faults. 

Cas.     a  friendly  eye  could  never  see  such  faults.  iO 

Bru.     a  flatterer's  would  not,  though  they  do  appear 
As  huge  as  high  Olympus. 

Cas.     Come,  Antony,  and  young  Octavius,  come, 
Revenge  yourselves  alone  on  Cassius, 
For  Cassius  is  aweary  of  the  world  : 
Hated  by  one  he  loves;  braved  by  his  brother; 
Check'd  like  a  bondman;  all  his  faults  observed. 
Set  in  a  note-book,  learn'd,  and  conn'd  by  rote. 
To  cast  into  my  teeth.     O,  I  could  weep 

My  spirit  from  mine  eyes !    There  is  my  dagger,  100 

And  here  my  naked  breast ;  within,  a  heart 
Dearer  than  Plutus'  mine,  richer  than  gold: 
If  that  thou  be'st  a  Roman,  take  it  forth; 
Strike,  as  thou  didst  at  Caesar ;  for,  I  know, 
I,  that  denied  thee  gold,  will  give  my  heart : 
When  thou  didst  hate  him  worst,  thou  lovedst  him  better 
Than  ever  thou  lovedst  Cassius. 

Bru.  Sheathe  your  dagger: 

Be  angry  when  you  will,  it  shall  have  scope ; 
Do  whao  you  will,  dishonour  shall  be  humour. 
O  Cassius,  you  are  yoked  with  a  lamb  110 

That  carries  anger  as  the  flint  bears  fire ; 
Who,  much  enforced,  shows  a  hasty  spark, 
And  straight  is  cold  again. 

Cas.  Hath  Cassius  lived 

To  be  but  mirth  and  laughter  to  his  Brutus, 
When  grief,  and  blood  ill-temper' d,  vexeth  him*^ 

Bru.     When  I  spoke  that,  I  was  ill-temper'd  too. 

Cas.     Do  you  confess  so  much?    Give  me  your  hand. 

Bru.     And  my  heart  too. 

Cas.  O  Brutus! 

Bru.  What's  the  matter? 

Cas.     Have  not  you  love  enough  to  bear  with  me. 
When  that  rash  humour  which  my  mother  gave  me  120 


288  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Makes  me  forgetful? 

Bru.  Yes,  Cassius;  and,  from  henceforth, 

When  you  are  over-earnest  with  your  Brutus. 
He'll  think  your  mother  chides,  and  leave  you  so. 

A  few  words  of  introduction  are  first  necessary.  We 
should  understand  the  play  as  a  whole,  and  be  conversant  with 
the  events  that  lead  up  to  this  particular  scene ;  further,  we 
should  bear  in  mind  the  tense,  splenetic  character  of  Cassius, 
and  the  calm,  controlled,  stoical  disposition  of  Brutus. 

1.  1. — In  Scene  2  we  get  the  keynote  to  Cassius'  manner. 
He  is  so  full  of  his  supposed  wrong  that  he  pays  no  heed  to 
the  surroundings,  and  bluntly  plunges  into  the  matter  in 
hand.  Brutus  restrains  him,  and  together  they  move  to  the 
former's  tent.  No  sooner  do  they  enter  than  again  Cassius 
bursts  forth. 

1.  4. — Cassius  is  piqued  that  his  letters  should  have  failed 
to  shield  Lucius  Pell  a  from  the  punishment  for  his  wrong- 
doing. 

1.  5. — Subordinate  and  explanatory. 

1.  6. — Brutus's  answer  is  simple  and  direct,  yet  without 
feeling. 

1.  8. — Nice  is  equivalent  to  unimportant,  small.  There  is 
a  touch  of  contempt  in  this  speech. 

1.  9. — Again  we  note  the  directness  of  Brutus's  statement, 
and  the  absence  of  feeling.  Note,  too,  that  he  in  no  way 
seeks  to  soften  his  charges. 

1.  12. — Imagine  the  surprise  and  rage  of  Cassius.  There 
will  be  a  sweeping  upward  inflection  on  /.  It  is  only  with 
the  utmost  effort  that  the  fiery  Cassius  can  control  himself. 

1.  15-16. — Paraphrased,  these  lines  mean,  The  name  of 
Cassius  is  associated  with  this  corruption,  and  hence  the 
hands  of  justice  are  tied.  For,  to  bring  the  corrupters  to  trial 
would  be  to  drag  in  Cassius  with  them. 


HINTS  ON  READINGS  289 

1.  17. — Do  you  dare  to  use  the  teriri  chastisement  in  Gon- 
nection  with,  mi/  name? 

1.  18. — Unmoved  hy  the  anger  of  Cassius,  Brutus 
proceeds  calmly  and  perhaps  too  ruthlessly  to  arraign  his 
friend. 

1.  21. — Ohserye  the  high  moral  standard  of  Brutus. 

1.  21-26. — Eising  inflections  throughout. 

1.  27. — Observe  the  contempt. 

1.  28. — During  the  speech  of  Brutus,  Cassius  can  scarcely 
contain  himself.  Never  has  any  one  dared  to  arraign  him. 
Now  he  is  even  forgetting  the  deference  he  has  been  wont  to 
show  to  one  whom  he  recognizes  as  his  superior. 

1.  32-34. — Kapidly,  as  the  passion  of  the  men  rises. 

1.  35-36. — Now  Cassius  begins  to  threaten. 

1.  37. — There  is  no  anger  in  this.  Brutus  knows  that 
Cassius  is  beside  himself,  and  brushes  him  aside  as  one  would 
brush  an  insignificant  dust  speck  from  his  clothing. 

1.  38. — Such  treatment  Cassius  cannot  understand.  The 
line  is  exclamatory  rather  than  interrogative.  It  is  equiv- 
alent to,  Can  I  believe  my  ears? 

1.  38. — Brutus  now  begins  to  assert  himself.  It  is  a  new 
aspect  of  his  character,  which  we  can  comprehend  only  when 
we  learn,  as  we  do  later,  that  Portia  is  dead. 

1.  40. — Brutus  must  be  greatly  moved  to  call  his  dearest 
friend  a  madman. 

1.  41. — The  strain  of  listening  to  such  words  is  becoming 
too  great  for  Cassius  to  bear. 

1.  42. — Brutus  seems  almost  to  enjoy  the  terrible  lesson  he 
is  reading  Cassius.  It  is  well-nigh  incredible  that  the 
thoughtful,  loving  husband  of  Portia,  and  the  considerate 
master  of  Lucius,  should  speak  thus  to  any  one,  let  alone  his 
best  friend. 

I,  50,— There  seems  to  b©  no  feeling  but  surprise  in  this, 


290  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

surprise  verging  on  bewilderment.  As  Brutus  grows  more 
passionate  Cassius  seems  to  subside. 

1.  51-54. — It  is  Brutus  now  who  appears  to  lose  self- 
control.     Cassius  never  said  he  was  a  better  soldier. 

1.  55-57. — Anger  and  bewilderment  give  way  to  a  sense  of 
having  been  wronged  r  the  last  sentence  is  almost  pathetic  in 
its  humility. 

1.  57. — ^Anger  and  contempt. 

1.  58. — Cassius'  passion  is  again  beginning  to  rise. 

1.  59-62. — Note  the  increasing  astonishment  in  the 
speeches  of  Cassius,  and  the  superciliousness  of  Brutus. 

1.  63-64. — A  threat  uttered  not  so  much  in  anger  as  in  fear 
that  he  may  not  be  able  to  control  his  feelings. 

1.  65. — Have  and  should  are  the  emphatic  words. 

1.  65-82. — This  speech  needs  no  commentary.  It  is  a 
plain  and  unmistakable  arraignment,  uttered  in  unequivocal 
language,  and  in  simple,  direct  manner. 

1.  82. — Cassius  is  pained  that  his  friend  should  so  mis- 
understand him.  From  now  to  line  93  Cassius  seems  to 
throw  himself  upon  the  mercy  of  his  friend,  while  the  latter 
repels  his  advances,  each  time  with  greater  harshness. 

1  93-107. — Cassius'  heart  is  broken.  If  his  best  friend 
can  so  wantonly  misunderstand  him,  what  can  he  hope  from 
his  enemies?  There  is  nothing  left  to  live  for,  and  he  would 
eagerly  welcome  death  even  at  the  hands  of  Antony.  The 
passage  is  overflowing  with  heartbreak,  and  gains  our  sympathy 
for  one  who  else  would  seem  but  a  crafty,  self-seeking  schemer. 

1.  107. — The  speech  of  Cassius  brings  Brutus  back  to  him- 
self.    Here  is  the  real  Brutus,  full  of  tenderness  and  love. 

To  understand  fully  the  unusual  display  of  feeling  in  this 
scene  we  should  read  further  to  the  stage  direction,  Re-enter 
LuciuSy  with  wine  and  taper. 


INDEX  TO   SUBJECTS 


Antithesis,  rhetorical,  143. 

Atmosphere,  184;  examples  illus- 
trating, 185 ;  analysis  of  a  selec- 
tion illustrating,  193;  of  des 
cription,  psychology  of,  199. 

Central  idea,  138 ;  study  of,  a  log- 
ical process,  141. 

Character,  contrast  of,  207. 

Climaxes,  212 ;  of  significance,  212, 
214,  215;  of  intensity,  213; 
gradation  of,  216. 

Complexity,  defined,  11. 

Contrasts,  205;  two  kinds  of,  211. 

Criteria  of  vocal  expression,  17. 

Criterion  of  force,  101. 

Criterion  of  pitch,  42. 

Criterion  of  quality,  80. 

Criterion  of  time,  19, 

Emotion,  172;  affects  quality,  82; 

how   to  develop,   172;   contrast 

of,  205. 
Emotional  transitions,    examples 

of,  162. 
Emphasis,  rules  for,  139 ;  drills  in, 

140. 
Expression,  complexity  of,  178 

Figurative  interrogation,  61. 
Force,    criterion    of,    101;    peda- 
gogical aspects  of,  112. 

Grouping,  28,  128 ;  independent  of 

Eunctuation,    28;   extract  from 
icgouve  on,  40. 

Hints  on  readings,  254. 


Imagination  and  quality,  84. 

Imitation,  227;  not  art,  189;  ten- 
dency toward,  191. 

Inflections,  meaning  of,  57 ;  rising, 
57;  falling,  63;  circumflex, 
examples  of,  67. 

Intangibility,  defined,  11. 

Interpretation,  literary,  231 ; 
vocal,  232. 

Key,  defined,  45;  reasons  for,  49; 
dependent  upon  degree  of 
tension,  54. 

Literary  interpretation,  231 ; 
analysis  of  a  selection  illus- 
trating, 284. 

Melody,  43,  54;  analysis  of  a  selec- 
tion illustrating,  71;  of  long 
sentences,  77. 

Mental  attitude  of  the  reader,  117. 

Mental  technique,  129. 

Methods,  mechanical,  9;  ''get- 
the-thought,"  9;  laxity  of,  13; 
concluding  remarks  on,  224. 

Momentary  completeness,  61,  136; 
drills  in,  65 ;  analysis  of  a  selec- 
tion illustrating,  256. 

Movement,  analysis  of  selection 
illustrating,  266. 

Pause,  as  related  to  time,  27;  an 
expressive  element,  32;  ex- 
amples of,  35. 

Pedagogical  aspects,  of  time,  38; 
of  pitch,  75;  of  quality,  98;  of 
force,  112. 


292 


INDEX  TO  SUBJECTS 


Phases,  studies  in,  163. 

Phrases,  subordinate,  150, 

Pitch,  criterion  of,  42;  meaning 
of,  42 ;  Raymond's  definition  of, 
42 ;  melody  of,  42 ;  analysis  of  a 
selection  illustrating,  71;  peda- 
gogical aspects  of,  75 ;  low,  107. 

Primary  reading,  the  teaching  of, 
118. 

Punctuation,  effect  upon  reading, 
80. 

Purpose  of  the  reading  lesson,  12. 

Quality,  criterion  of,  80 ;  physics  of, 
80;  effect  of  emotion  upon,  82; 
Rush's  classification  of,  82; 
orotund,  83;  imagination  and, 
84 ;  elevated  feelings  in  relation 
to,  85;  normal,  90;  examples  of 
normal,  91;  aspirated,  92;  dark, 
94;  bright,  94;  examples  of 
dark,  95;  examples  of  bright, 
97;  pedagogical  aspects  of,  98; 
William  L.  Tomlins,  on,  100. 

Reading  and  literature,  relation 
of,  10. 

Requisites  for  the  teacher  of  read- 
ing, 10. 

Rhythm,  analyses  of  selections 
illustrating,  236,  244,  254;  study 
in,  232;  meaning  of,  238. 

Sight  reading,  120. 

Skip,  psychology  of  the,  56. 

Stress,  defined,  101;  radical,  101; 
final,  102;  degrees  of,  103;  Ray- 
mond's   definition    of    radical, 


104;  Raymond's  definition  of 
final,  105;  median,  106;  ex- 
amples of  radical,  107 ;  examples 
of  final,  109 ;  examples  of  median, 
110. 

Subordinate  phrases,  150. 

Subordination,  149. 

Succession  of  ideas,  132. 

Suggestive  lesson,  121,  130,  136, 
147,  155,  167,  173,  197,  209,  221. 

Teacher  of  reading,  requisites  for, 
10. 

Teaching  reading,  mechanical 
method  of,  9;  "get-the-thought" 
method  of,  9;  laxity  of  methods 
of,  13;  concluding  remarks  on 
method  of,  224. 

Technique,  defined,  226. 

Time,  criterion  of,  19;  Raymond's 
definition  of,  19;  psychology  of, 
19 ;  expansive  paraphrase  to 
reveal,  20 ;  examples  of  slow,  21 ; 
examples  of  fast,  23 ;  analysis  of 
selection  illustrating,  26;  rela- 
tion of  quantity  to,  27 ;  relation 
of  pause  to,  27;  pedagogical 
aspects  of,  38. 

Transitions,  159,  160;  emotional 
examples  of,  162. 

Values,  157;  examples  of,  157; 
analysis  of  a  selection  illustrat- 
ing, 256. 

Vocal  expression,  criteria  of,  17. 

Vocal  interpretation,  232. 

Voice,  defects  in,  81. 


INDEX  TO  FIRST  LIKES  OF  SELECTIONS 


A  fool,  a  fool ! — I  met  a  fool,  48. 
A  land  of  streams,  240. 
Alas !  my  noble  boy !  95. 
Among  the  exploits  of  marvelous, 

152. 
And  as  a  hungry  lion,  79. 
And  do  you  now  put  on  your  best 

attire,  140. 
And  now  go  bring  your  sharpest 

torments,  110. 
And  the  evening  star  was  shining, 

87. 
And  the  old  Tartar  came  upon  the 

sand,  185. 
And  thus  King  Priam  supplicat- 
ing, 165. 
And  5^ou, — you  who  are,  152. 
Antonio,  I  am  married  to  a  wife, 

44. 
Arise,    shine;    for    thy    light    is 

come,  110. 
As  thro'  the  land  at  eve  we  went, 

200. 
As  when  a  boar  or  lion,  164. 
As    when    some    hunter    in    the 

spring,  203. 
At  Atri  in  Abruzzo,  78,  154. 
At  Flores  in  the  Azores,  284. 
At  the  moment  when  death,  38. 
Awake,  my  soul !    Not  only  passive 

praise,  87. 

Before  a  quarter  pole  was  pass'd, 

24. 
Blessings  on  thee,  little  man,  175. 
Blow  trumpet,  for  the  world,  201. 
Blow    wands,     and    crack    your 

cheeks!  94,  242. 
Bury  the  great  Duke,  87. 
But  in  the  gloom  they  fought,  107. 


But    Rustum   eyed    askance    the 

kneeling  youth,  201. 
But  when  public  taste,  79. 
But    when    the  gray  dawn  stole 

into  his  tent,  28. 

Did  your  letters  pierce,  188. 

Ferood,  and  ye,  Persians  and  Tar- 
tars, hear!  162. 

Figure  to  yourself  a  cataract,  22. 

For  even  then.  Sir,  even  before, 
112. 

Fresh  as  the  flower,  whose  modest 
worth,  153. 

Gloriously,  Max!  gloriously!  28. 
Great  have   thy  sufl:erings   been, 

166. 
Gusty  and  raw  was  the  morning, 

193. 

Half  a  league,  half  a  league,  236. 
Haste  thee,  nymph,  48,  239. 
Hear  the  sledges   with  the  bells, 

98. 
Hector,  thou  almost  ever  chidest 

me,  164. 
Here  are  old  trees,  239. 
He    spoke,    and  Sohrab  kindled, 

202. 
He    spoke;     but   Rustum    gazed, 

162. 
Him  the  Almighty  power,  242. 
Ho !  gallant  nobles  of  the  League, 

112. 
However  as  the  sun  baked,  151. 
How  lovely  are  thy  dwellings  fair  I 

23. 


S93 


294 


INDEX  TO  FIRST  LINES  OF  SELECTIONS 


How  now,  TubaL'  205. 
How  th6  robin  feeds  her  young, 
176. 

I  can  not  tell  what  you  and  other 
men,  180. 

I  come,  I  come  ye  have  called, 
239. 

If  there  be  three  in  all  your  com- 
pany, 207. 

If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed 
them  now,  162. 

I  had  a  dream,  47. 

I  know  that  virtue  to  be  in  you, 
217. 

In  1815  M.  Charles  Myriel,  58. 

In  his  early  manhood,  153. 

In  the  furrowed  land,  134. 

I  sprang  to  the  stirrup,  232. 

It  is  but  a  legend,  I  know,  47. 

It  is  but  change,  Titinius,  144. 

It  is  my  purpose,  therefore,  155. 

Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium,  266. 
Lead  out  the  pageant;    sad  and 

slow,  30. 
Let  me  play  the  fool,  97. 
Lookl  look!  that  livid  flash!  240. 

Meanwhile  King  Robert  yielded 

to  his  fate,  44. 
Messer  Bernado  del  Nero  was  as 

inexorable,  37. 
Most  of  all,  fellow  citizens,  85. 
Most  potent,  grave,  and  reverend 

signiors,  179. 
Mr.  Speaker :  The  mingled  tones  of 

sorrow,  21. 
My  good  blade  carves  the  casques 

of  men,  210. 

Nay,  curs'd  be  thou,  35. 

Never,  lago.     Like  to  the  Pontic 

Sea,  94. 
Next  morning,  waking  with  the 

day's  first  beam,  219. 
No  one  venerates  the  Peerage  more 

than  I  do,  153. 


Of  Man's  first   disobedience,  and 

the  fruit,  32. 
Often  have  I  swept  backward,  in 

imagination,  21. 
Oh,  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out 

of  the  west,  254. 
O,  my  offense  is  rank,  95. 
Once  more  into  the  breach,  dear 

friends,  50« 
On  Linden,   when    the    sun  was 

low,  170. 
On  the  Mountains  of  the  Prairie, 

257. 
O  pardon  me,  thou  bleeding  piece 

of  earth,  216. 
O,  sing  unto  the  Lord  a  new  song, 

112. 
Over  his  keys  the  musing  organ- 
ist, 46. 
O,  what  a  rogue  and  peasant  slave 

am  I,  53. 

Reputation,  reputation,  reputa- 
tion! 181. 

Sea-kings'  daughter  from  over  the 

sea,  51. 
Search  creation  round,  21. 
See  what  a  grace  was  seated,  86. 
Sheltered  by  the  verdant  shores, 

207. 
She  mounts    her  chariot  with  a 

trice,  97. 
Sir,  the  gentleman  inquires,  160. 
Some  of  the  softening  effects,  37. 
Soon  after  William  H.  Harrison's 

nomination,  31. 
Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  91. 
Sweet  and  low,  200. 

That  you  do  love  me,  I  am  nothing 
jealous,  146. 

That  you  have  wronged  me,  284. 

The  armaments  which  thunder- 
strike,  108. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  part- 
ing day,  189,  231. 

The  empire  of  Blefuscu,  134. 

The  father  came  on  deck»  175, 


INDEX  TO  FIRST  LINES  OF  SELECTIONS 


295 


The  Lord  reigneth,  111. 

The  name  and  memory  of  Wash- 
ington, 28. 

Then  he  departed  with  them  o'er 
the  sea,  210. 

Then  it  was  that  Jo,  151. 

Then  methought  I  heard  a  mellow 
sound,  25. 

Then  sing,  ye  birds,  241. 

There's  a  rogue  at  play  in  my  sun- 
lit room,  123. 

The  trumpet,  the  gallop,  the 
charge,  164. 

This  too,  thou  know'st,  163. 

Three  quarters  round  your  part- 
ners swing,  157. 

Thou  kingly  Spirit,  111. 

Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State, 
86. 

To  be,  or  not  to  be,  52. 

To  whom  replied  King  Arthur, 
243. 

Up  from  the  meadows  rich  with 
corn,  71. 


Venerable  men!  you  have  come 
down  to  us,  89. 

Vengeance!  plague!  death!  con- 
fusion! 161. 

Whatever  Lionel  had  said  to  his 

wife,  37. 
What  lesson  shall  those  lips  teach 

us,  89. 
When  a  wind  from  the  lands,  222. 
Wherefore    rejoice?     What    con 

quest,  26,  213. 
Where  sweeps   round  the  moun 

tains,  49. 
While  the  Union  lasts,  78. 
Wrapped  in  a  maze  of  thought,  22, 

Yet  his  means  are  in  supposition, 

30. 
Ye,     who    sometimes,     in     your 

rambles,  132. 
You  Heavens,  give  me  patience, 

96. 
You  think  me  a  fanatic  to-night, 

22. 


LIST  OF  POEMS  AND  SELECTIONS  ANALYZED 


Barbara  Frietchie , Whittier  71 

Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade Tennyson  236 

Horatius  (The  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome) Macaulay  266 

How  They  Brought  the  Good  News  From  Ghent  to  Aix 

Robert  Browning  212 

The  Fight  of  Paso  del  Mar .,. Bayard  Taylor  193 

The  Peace-Pipe  (Hiawatha) Longfellow  256 

The  Quarrel  Scene  (Julius  Caesar) Shakespeare  284 

The  Revenge Tennyson  244 

Young  Lochinvar Scott  254 


QUESTIONS  ON  **HOW  TO  TEACH  EEADING" 

Jessie  L.  Newlin,  A.B. 
Department  of  Public  BpeaJcing,  University  College  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 


lKTRODUCTIO:Nr 

These  questions  are  the  outgrowth  of  much  experience  iu 
the  use  of  this  book  with  teachers,  and  are  here  preseated 
that  they  may  assist  teachers  to  grasp  its  vital  principles. 
They  are  intended  to  stimulate  thoroughgoing  and  effective 
study,  rather  than  to  lead  directly  to  answers  in  the  language 
of  the  book. 

Some  of  the  questions,  in  the  nature  of  things,  deal 
with  the  mechanics  of  reading;  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  their  purpose  is  always  to  stimulate  mental  processes 
that  the  relation  between  form  and  thought  may  be  clearly 
apprehended.  The  various  elements,  such  as  inflection, 
pause,  etc.,  are  not  to  be  studied  apart  from  the  thought 
that  creates  them,  for  they  are  never  anything  but  the  ia- 
stinctive  and  inevitable  manifestations  of  thought  and 
feeling. 

It  is  further  hoped  that  these  questions  may  suggest  to 
the  teacher  how  to  make  practical  in  her  own  reading  the 
theory  presented,  so  that  the  child  may  have  always  before 
him  a  high  standard  of  reading. 

1.  Discuss  the  relative  importance  of  the  reading  lesson. 

2.  Explain  the  general  deficiency  in  this  subject. 

3.  Cite  objections  to  the  method  that  directs  the  child's 
attention  to  inflection,  pause,  etc. 

297 


298  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

4.  What  are  the  requirements  of  a  successful  teacher  of 
reading? 

5.  Is  the  ability  to  read  well  necessary  to  successful  teach- 
ing of  reading?    Why? 

6.  Is  the  teacher  who  has  studied  Wordsworth  and 
Shakespeare  necessarily  better  qualified  to  teach  Adelaide 
Proctor,  Thoreau,  etc.?    Discuss. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  Intangibility  of  vocal  expression? 
Complexity?    Illustrate  with  some  concrete  example. 

9.  Show  the  relation  between  literary  interpretation  and 
the  reading  lesson. 

10.  What  are  the  two  principal  objects  to  be  attained  as 
a  result  of  the  reading  lesson? 

Chapter  I. — Time 

1.  Discuss  the  difference  in  standards  of  teaching  reading 
and  of  other  common  school  branches.     Illustrate.  . 

2.  What  is  meant  by  Criteria  of  vocal  expression? 

3.  In  what  sense  is  Time  a  criterion? 

4.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  rate  of  movement  in  vocal 
utterance  to  the  thought  behind  the  words?  " 

5.  Show  by  expansive  paraphrase  that  the  extract 
beginning  ''Wrapped  in  a  ma^e  of  thought,"  p.  22,  would 
be  read  in  slow  time. 

6.  How  can  you  explain  the  reason  for  a  student  reading 
important  passages  rapidly,  when  by  questioning  him  you 
find  he  has  a  clear  understanding  of  the  import  of  J^he 
lines? 

7.  Give  a  possible  paraphrase  of  the  first  stanza,  p.  23,  as 
one  in  imagination  stands  in  contemplation  of  the 
"dwellings." 

8.  In  the  first  line  of  this  stanza  is  ''lovely"  the  most 
imaginative  word?    Why? 


QUESTIONS  299 

9.  Show  how  without  imagination  or  collateral  thinking 
fast  Time  in  one  of  the  excerpts  given  on  p,  24  would  be 
meaningless. 

10.  Discuss  the  author's  suggestions  r^rding  the 
movement  of  the  selection,  p.  26,  from  ''Julius  Caesar." 

11.  Why  do  we  generally  read  descriptions  of  races  with 
relatively  rapid  movement?  Why  is  "generally"  inserted  in 
this  question? 

-12.  Why  are  "fast,"  and  "slow,"  Time  relative  terms? 

13.  In  what  two  ways  is  Time  manifested?  Illustrate 
both  by  a  vocal  reading. 

14.  Explain  the  two  mental  processes  underlying  Pausing,; 
^  15.  What  is  the  underlying  principle  of  Grouping? 

16.  Explain  how  punctuation  has,  aside  from  showing 
logical  relations  of  thought,  absolutely  nothing  to  do  with 
Pausing.     Why,  then,  do  we  sometimes  pause  at  commas? 

17.  Eead  the  first  illustration  on  p.  29  so  as  to  express 
two  distinct  ideas.  As  the  punctuation  stands,  which  is  the 
only  possible  interpretation? 

18.  Eead  aloud  the  illustrations  given  under  Grouping, 
making  sure  that  your  interpretation  cannot  be  misunder- 
stood. 

~  19.  What  is  the  force  of  the  colon  in  the  passage  "Lead 
out  the  pageant,"  page  30?  How  would  a  comma  after 
"last"  affect  the  meaning?  the  vocal  interpretation? 

20.  How  does  the  comma  after  "hath,"  in  the  passage 
from  "The  Merchant  of  Venice"  give  an  insight  into  Shy- 
lock's  character? 

21.  Test  your  ability  to  group  correctly  by  reading  aloud 
to  listeners  without  a  book  the  illustration  on  page  32.  Can 
they  follow  you  throughout? 

22.  Discuss  Pause  as  an  expressive  element. 

"  23.  By  what  two  means  do  we  judge  whether  the  pause 


300  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

in  the  pupil's  reading  is  a  blank  silence  or  full  of  collateral 
thinking? 

24.  ^hat  determines  the  duration  of  pause?  Eead  the 
extract  froi%,'* Julius  Caesar"  illustrating  the  point. 

25.  Explain  with  an  illustration,  how  emotion  as  distinct 
from  {Tiinking  is  almost  never  the  cause  of  pausing. 

26.  Read  aloud  every  example  of  grouping  on  pp.  36  an  i 
87? 

27.  Why  never  teach  Time  as  such? 

28.  What  criticisms  would  you  offer  to  improve  a  reading 
that  was  too  fast?  too  slow?  What  may  be  the  causes  of 
both  defects? 

29.  State  clearly  in  summary  the  psychological  principles 
involved  in  Grouping,  Pausing,  and  Time. 

Suggestion,  It  is  well  to  put  into  practice  both  in  read- 
ing and  teaching  what  we  have  thus  far  learned  before  going 
on  to  the  next  step.  Correct  thinking,  which  results  in 
correct  grouping,  is  the  foundation  of  good  reading. 

Chapter  II. — Pitch 

1.  In  what  significance  is  the  term  Pitch  used? 

2.  Explain  how  *' Pitch  reveals  the  motive.'* 

3.  Illustrate  vocally  how  by  changing  the  melody  the 
Bame  words  may  be  used  to  express  very  different  ideas. 

4.  Explain  clearly  what  we  mean  by  melody  in  speech. 
(Note  we  do  not  meaxpnelodiousness.) 

5.  Show  by  vocal  illustration  the  difference  between 
emphasis  by  means  of  force  and  by  means  of  inflection. 
Which  is  the  more  subtle? 

6.  What  determines  the  melody?  Give  an  illustration  of 
the  principle,  p.  44,  that  **like  motives  are  manifested  in 
like  melodies." 


QUESTIONS  301 

7.  Define  key.  What  determines  key  in  each  of  the  ex- 
amples on  pp.  46  to  49. 

8.  What  is  the  prevailing  key  in  the  excerpt  from  Byron'a 
**Darkness,"  p.  47?    Why?  ^ 

9.  Explain  the  physics  of  high  pitch.  Explain  the 
psycho-physiological  reason  for  it  in  the  voice. 

10.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  pupils  of  habitual  use  of 
high  pitch  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  the  school  room?      ^^ 

11.  Why  does  a  speaker  raise  his  pitch  in  a  large  room? 
What   device  might  a  teacher  use  to  overcome  the  ^high-  i^ 
pitched  **read-y"  tone  so  prevalent  in  the  schoolroom?  "^-x 

12.  Show  by  a  vocal  reading  of  Hamlet's  soliloquies,  pp.  -^ 
52  and  53,  the  absurdity  of  the  rule, — Soliloquies  must  be^ 
read  in  low  pitch. 

13.  Discuss  fully  the  psychology  of  melody  as  explained 
on  pp.  54  to  60  and  show  vocally  what  is  meant  by  the 
illustrations  there  given. 

14.  Prove  also  by  these  illustrations  that  we  do  not 
always  *'raise  the  voice  at  a  comma,  or  a  question  mark," 
nor  **drop  it  at  a  period." 

15.  Eead,  **It  doesn't  look  like  rain,  does  it?"  expressing 
three  or  four  different  interpretations  by  as  many  different 
melodies  (or  speech  tunes). 

16.  Eead  aloud  the  diagrammed  sentences  on  p.  55  to 
illustrate  the  increase  and  decrease  of  tension,  striving  not 
for  ascending  and  descending  melo^  of  voice  as  such,  but 
for  intensity  of  thought  and  feelinJ^^ 

17.  To  what  extent  is  the  stucNBhd  analysis  of  speech 
melody  helpful  to  the  teacher?  ^ 

18.  Discuss  the  principle,  that  inflections  are  the  result 
of  mental  action,  and  are  not  mechanical  devices. 

19.  How,  then,  will  you  teach  inflections?  Illustrate  by 
showing  how  you  would  correct  a  pupil  who  used  a  falling 


302  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

inflection  on   "cat"   in  the   sentence  "I  saw  a  cat  and  a 
dog." 

20.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  rising  inflection?  of  the 
falling  inflection? 

21.  Explain  and  illustrate  what   the  author  means   by     " 
Momentary  Completeness. 

22.  Eead  the  sentence  ''God  of  battles,  was  ever  a  battle 
like  this  in  the  world  before?"  so  as  to  convey  the  idea 
that  ''there  never  was,"  and  note  the  strongly  assertive 
melody  necessary  for  such  an  interpretation. 

23.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  for  Momentary  Com-  / 
pleteness? 

24.  Explain  Finality.  Show  clearly  the  distinction 
between  Momentary  Completeness  and  Finality.     Illustrate^. 

25.  Why  is  Finality  preceded  by  a  tnOre  or  less  distinct 
rising  melody? 

26.  Show  by  a  vocal  reading  the  "motives"  in  the  illus- 
trations on  pp.  65,  66,  and  67. 

27.  What  is  the  psychology  of  the  circumflex  inflection? 
If  each  single  inflection  has  a  definite  meaning,  how  many 
ideas  will  be  contained  in  the  circumflex  inflection?  Illus» 
trate. 

28.  Explain  the  diagrams  of  the  risihg  and  falling 
circumflex  inflections  given  on  pp.  68  and  69. 

29.  Give  some  other  examples  of  the  rising  and  falling 
circumflex  inflection  and  give  an  expansive  paraphrase  to 
justify  the  inflection^^ 

30.  What  determines  the  length  of  the  inflection? 
direction? 

31.  Discuss  the  psychology  of  the  monotone  as  contrasted 
with  varied  melody. 

32.  Does  a  close  analysis  of  a  selection  enhance  or  destroy 
one's  appreciation  of  the  selection?     Why? 


QUESTIONS  303 

33.  Note  carefully  the  analysis  given  of  "Barbara 
Frietchie/'  and  apply  in  the  vocal  reading. 

34.  What  objections  are  there  to  telling  a  pupil  to  let  his 
voice  fall?     ^ 

35.  Discuss  the  author's  principle  of  pedagogy  in  this 
chapter. 

At  this  point  let  the  principles  involved  in  Time  and 
Pitch  be  discussed  and  applied  in  connection  with  the 
illustrations  given  in  Chapters  VI  and  VII. 

Chapters  V,  VI,  ajs^d  VII 

1.  What  has  been  your  method  of  teaching  reading? 

2.  Why  is  a  method  indispensable  to  the  teaching  of  good 
reading? 

3.  What  is  good  reading? 

4.  Summarize  the  discussion  of  the  first  step. 

5.  What  suggestions  can  you  offer  to  make  this  step 
effective? 

6.  How  would  you  stimulate  the  pupil  to  get  the  thought 
and  feeling  in  Browning's  **Ride  from  Ghent  to  Aix," 
p.  232? 

7.  Discuss  **Get  the  thought,  hold  the  thought,  give  the 
thought,"  and  the  relative  importance  of  the  three  state- 
ments. 

8.  To  what  extent  is  sight  reading  advisable? 

9.  What  are  the  dangers  ii^g^ncert  reading?  When 
might  this  exercise  bring  a  desirecFresult,  and  why? 

10.  What  does  the  author  mean  by  "graded  reading"? 

11.  What  is  the  next  step  after  the  pupil  has  recognized 
the  value  of  grouping? 

12.  Do  you  agree  with  the  author  that  the  criticism  of  a 
pupil's  reading  should  be  directed  to  but  one  aspect  at  a  time? 


304  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

13.  Name  some  selections  or  passages  besides  those 
mentioned  on  p.  120  which  are  particularly  good  for  the 
study  of  grouping. 

14.  Why  does  the  discussion  of  Succession  of  Ideas  log- 
ically follow  the  discussion  of  Grouping? 

15.  In  the  first  example  on  p.  134  where  are  the  chief 
difficulties? 


Chapter  III. — Quality 

1.  Discriminate  between  Quality  as  a  manifestation  of 
emotional  states  and  the  fixed  quality  of  an  individual  voice. 

2.  Make  a  careful  study  of  some  typical  voices  in  your 
class,  and  determine  to  what  extent  the  defects  are  due  to 
temperament. 

3.  Is  the  quality  of  one's  voice  any  indication  of  character? 

4.  What  does  the    author   mean  by  orotund    quality? 
What  is  its  chief  characteristic?     How  is  this  orotund 

quality  developed? 

5.  To  what  extent  does  emotion  change  the  speaker's 
natural  quality? 

6.  What  relation  is  there  between  imagination  and 
quality? 

7.  Present  clearly  the  author's  point  of  view  in  voice 
development. 

8.  Discriminate  between  a  loud  voice  and  one  suggestive 
of  power. 

9.  What  are  **eleva*ed  feelings"?  How  would  you 
develop  the  quality  of  voice  necessary  to  express  them? 

10.  Why  is  Quality  the  most  difficult  element  of 
express* on  to  obtain? 

11.  What  atmosphere  in  a  schoolroom  is  most  conducive 
to  good  results  in  the  expression  of  emotion? 


QUESTIONS  305 

12.  How  far  shall  the  teacher  go  in  the  stimulation  of 
the  imagination  of  the  child? 

13.  Let  the  teacher  read  aloud  with  spontaneity  the 
examples  under  Quality,  striving  for  a  full  realization  of  the 
vital  thoughts  and  feelings  therein  expressed. 

14.  What  motives  lie  behind  the  breathy  tone  as  an 
expressive  element?     Illustrate  some  of  these. 

15.  Illustrate  vocally  the  "dark"  and  "bright"  quality. 

16.  Discriminate  carefully  between  the  true  and  affected 
expression  of  pathos. 

17.  Discuss  the  importance  of  emotional  development  in 
the  schools,  and  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  order  to 
reach  this  development. 

18.  To  what  extent  shall  we  teach  "voice"  in  the  school- 
room, and  how? 

Chapter  IV. — Force 

1.  What  is  meant  by  Force? 

2.  What  is  Eadical  stress,  and  of  what  mental  state  is  it 
an  index? 

3.  Explain  how  drills  in  this  stress  may  overcome  an 
habitual  drawl.     To  what  extent  should  these  drills  be  used? 

4.  Show  by  illustration  what  Final  stress  is,  and  explain 
its  psychology. 

5.  What  would  you  infer  of  the  temperament  of  a  speaker 
whose  habitual  delivery  was  strongly  marked  by  Final  stress? 

6.  How  would  you  correct  such  a  fault  in  a  pupil? 

7.  Why  should  we  never  tell  a  pupil  to  read  louder?  If 
the  pupil  is  not  heard,  how  shall  we  overcome  the  difficulty? 

8.  Illustrate  Loudness,  Forcefulness,  and  High  Key. 
Why  is  this  question  asked? 

9.  How  does  a  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of  Force  aid 
the  teacher? 


306  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Chapter  YIII. — Oe]S"tral  Idea 

1.  What  is  emphasis?     By  what  other  means  may  an  idea  l^ 
be  emphasized  than  by  force? 

2.  What  form  of  emphasis  is  most  subtle  or  suggestiyef  ^ 

3.  How  do  we  determine  where  the  emphasis  in  a  sentence  / 
or  phrase  lies? 

4.  Discuss  the  saying:  *' There  is  only  one  rule  for 
emphasis — Gumption." 

5.  Give  two  reasons  why  the  climax  of  thought  and 
emotion  in  the  first  illustration,  p.  140,  is  on  ''signet-ring." 

6.  Show,  by  reading  aloud  some  of  the  examples  given, 
the  vital  difference  between  a  mechanical  emphasis  and  one 
which  is  the  natural  outgrowth  of  discriminating  thought. 

7.  Discriminate  between  emphasis  of  contrast  and  antici- 
pative  emphasis.     When  is  the  latter  used? 

8.  How  would  you  defend  an  emphasis  on  ''would"  in 
Shylock's  speech,  p.  145? 

9.  Discuss  the  pedagogy  in  the  class  lesson  on  p.  147. 
Note  the  kind  of  questions  used  to  bring  out  the  Central 
Idea.     Discuss  them. 

10.  What  fundamental  principle  dwelt  upon  with 
emphasis  throughout  the  book  is  the  basis  of  this  chapter? 

Note. — The  best  method  of  studying  this  chapter  is  to 
read  aloud  the  various  illustrations  found  on  pp.  140  to  147. 

Chapter  IX. — SuBORDii^ATioisr 

1.  What  is  the  relation  of  Subordination  to  Central  Idea? 

2.  Prove  the  absurdity  of  the  rule,  "Parentheses  should 
be  read  in  lower  pitch  and  faster  time. " 

3.  Show  by  reading  the  first  illustration,  p.  151,  the  dif- 
ference between  slighting  and  slurring  the  subordinate  idea. 

4.  Give  an  example  showing    how    a    phrase    may    be 


QUESTIONS  307 

gtatnmatically  subordinate  and  yet  contain  the  most 
important  idea  (at  the  moment  of  utterance)  in  the  sentence. 

5.  Show  the  degrees  of  subordination  in  "At  Atri  in 
Abruzzo,"  etc.,  p.  154. 

6.  If  a  student  fails  to  distinguish  the  central  idea,  sub- 
ordinate, sub-subordinate,  etc.,  how  may  proper  relation  of 
ideas  be  brought  out?     Discuss  the  suggestions  offered. 

Chapter  X. — Values 

--1.  What  are  Values?  Transitions?  the  relations  of  Values 
to  Transitions? 

"'  2.  What  expression  fills  the  pause  indicated  by  the  dash 
in  Obiiht  Gismond,  p.  158?  Talk  the  lines  and  make  the 
pause  vital,  and  the  transition  spontaneous. 

3.  What  is  the  collateral  thinking  and  corresponding 
bodily  and  facial  expression  in  the  third  line  of  the  illustra- 
tion, p.  159? 

Note  the  author's  insistence  upon  practice  in  careful 
analysis  of  the  text  in  order  to  get  the  thought  and  emotion 
which  l)eget  full  and  free  expression.  Read  aloud  one  of 
the  illustrations  imitating  only  for7n  of  expression,  then 
follow  with  a  reading  in  which  the  thought  and  feeling 
create  the  proper  values  and  transitions  in  expression,  and 
note  the  difference  in  the  vitality  of  the  reading. 

4.  In  the  illustration  from  "Lear"  p.  161,  what  change 
takes  j)lace  in  the  mind  of  Lear  between  the  end  of  the 
10th  line  and  the  beginning  of  the  11th?  How  will  this 
change  be  manifested?     Illustrate. 

5.  Read  the  excerpt  from  ''The  Heavy  Brigade,"  p.  164, 
showing  the  ''phases"  of  thought  and  emotion. 

6.  Xote  the  importance  of  a  .study  of  values  in  the 
reading  of  description  and  how  such  a  study  destroys  the 
monotony  so  prevalent  with  the  majority  of  readers. 


308  READING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

7.  Suggest  some  means  or  device  that  will  stimulate  the 
child's  imagination  to  appreciate  the  transition  in 

There's  a  good  time  "coming,  boys, 
A  good — Come  in. 

8.  Notice  the  tendency  of  the  reader  to  overlook  the 
force  of  the  descriptive  passages  after  *'Halt"  and  ''Fire" 
(p.  168)  respectively.  How  will  you  stimulate  the  pupil  to 
get  this  effect? 

Chapter  XI. — Emotion 


J 


1.  Discuss  the  absence  of  the  expression  of  Emotion  in 
the  schoolroom  and  the  vital  importance  of  its  development. 

2.  How  can  we  teach  the  pupil  to  express  emotion  in  a  \ 
selection? 

3.  Discriminate  carefully  between  emotion  and  an 
affectation  of  it. 

4.  Note  the  stress  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  clearly 
seeing  the  picture,  and  dwelling  upon  it  until  the  emotion 
comes.  JSTote  also,  that  when  the  teacher  enlarges  sympa- 
thetically upon  the  picture,  the  pupil  catches  the  emotional 
atmosphere  through  the  expression  of  her  voice  and  face. 

5.  How  may  one  obtain  emotional  expression  in  a  selec-  \ 
tion  which  is  partially  removed  from  the  pupil's  experience? 

6.  Why  cannot  a  pupil  of  ten  years  read  with  appreciation  A 
''Barefoot  Boy"  and  "Little  Boy  Blue"? 

7.  Discuss  the  steps  suggested  on  p.  177  for  the  stimu->^ 
lation  of  emotion  and  expression  of  it  in  the  child. 

8.  How  shall  we  teach  the  expression  of  more  complex 
emotions? 

9.  What  suggestions  can  you  gather  from  this  chapter 
that  will  help  to  overcon>e  the  pupil's  shyness  in  express- 
ing the  deeper  feelings? 


QUESTIONS  309 

10.  Note  the  necessity  for  time,  patience,  and  encourage- 
ment in  this  phase  of  the  work. 

Chapter  XII. — Atmosphere 

1.  What  is  meant  by  Atmosphere?    Give  illustrations. 

2.  Discuss  the  meaaing  of  "variety  in  unity."  Illustrate 
by  reading  aloud  example  from  **Sohrab  and  Rustum,"  p.  185. 

3.  In  this  excerpt  be  careful  to  follow  the  author's  sug- 
gestions and  manifest  strongly  the  atmosphere  of  joy  and 
pride  in  the  first  part  of  the  simile;  contempt  and,  later,  fear 
in  the  second;  enveloping  the  whole  with  an  atmosphere  of 
dignity. 

4.  Why  are  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  lines  on  p.  246 
read  with  same  melody? 

5.  Study  carefully  and  discuss  the  analyses  given  on  pp. 
186-188.     Apply  analyses  in  reading  aloud  the  examples. 

6.  Note  that  merely  seeing  the  separate  pictures  in  the 
extract  from  Gray's  Elegy  without  getting  the  pervading 
atmosphere  of  rest,  quiet,  peace,  etc.,  is  a  conception  far 
short  of  what  the  poet  intenc'ed.     Test  this  in  oral  delivery. 

^  7.  Discuss  the  author's  discrimination  between  imitation 
and  manifestation  of  the  spirit  of  literature.  Illustrate  in 
the  examples  given. 

8.  Discriminate  between   the  simplicity  of  words,  and 
simplicity  of  the  spirit,  of  a  selectiop 
j^        9.  How  early  in  the  grades  may  we  begin  to  apply  this 
principle  of  atmosphere? 

10.  Note  how  carefully  the  author  in  his  analysis  of 
Bayard  Taylor's  poem,  pp.  193-195,  has  avoided  all  suggestion 
of  mechanical  imitation,  but  suggests  instead  the  vividness 
of  the  pictures  and  their  effect  upon  us. 

11.  What  is  the  best  test  of  a  truly  sympathetic  reading 
as  contrasted  with  a  mechanical  imitation? 


310  BEADING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

12.  Why  does  the  application  of  the  principle  of  Atmos- 
phere require  so  much  time  and  patience? 

13.  To  what  extent  is  the  question,  *'How  do  you  feel 
about  it?"  helpful  to  pupils  in  the  reading  of  descriptionf 

Chapter  XIII. — Oonteast 

1.  Discuss  the  importance  of  Contrast  as  a  fundamental 
principle  in  all  art. 

2.  In  what  ways  is  this  principle  made  effectiye  in 
literature? 

3.  In  reading  the  illustrations  given  under  Contrast  be 
oaref ul  not  to  try  to  bring  the  contrast  out  by  mere  force. 
First  take  time  to  think  the  thought,  or  to  experience  the 
emotions,  then  express. 

4.  Where,  in  the  illustration  from  '^Sir  Galahad,"  p. 
210,  is  the  contrast?    How  is  it  manifested? 

5.  Point  out  the  contrast  in  the  illustration  from  *'King 
Bobert  of  Sicily." 

6.  Illustrate  Contrast  of  Ideas ;  of  Emotions. 

Chapter  XIV. — CLiMAxi!^ 

1.  What  is  a  Climax?  origin  of  the  word?\ 

2.  What  is  a  Climax  of  Significance?  Illustrate  by 
Teading  aloud  the  example  given.  What  ig  the  force  of 
**even"?  .    - 

3.  What  is  a  Climax  of  Intensity? 

4.  Show  how  in  the  first  illustration  p.  213,  Intensity 
does  not  necessarily  mean  force,  loudness,  or  higher  pitch. 

5.  Does  Climax  of  Intensity  necessarily  include  Climax  of 
Significance?    Illustrate. 

6.  Why  does  **your  infants  in  your  arms"  follow 
**chimney  tops"  pp.  213-214?     Is  this  an  anti-climax? 


QUESTIONS  311 

7.  Discuss  the  climaxes  in  this  illustration  from  * 'Julius 
Caesar." 

8.  Give  an  illustration  of  a  Climax  of  Emotion  manifested 
by  decreasing  loudness  but  increasing  impressiveness. 

9.  What  is  Gradation? 

10.  What  does  the  author  mean  by  Oratorical  Climax  in 
his  comment  on  the  last  illustration  on  p.  220? 

11.  How  shall  we  drill  in  Climax? 

12.  Discuss  the  plan  presented,  pp.  221-222. 

13.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  four  "honors"  in  the 
Illustration  from  Tennyson,  p.  223? 

14.  Eead  aloud  all  illustrations  given  in  this  chapter, 
taking  great  care  not  to  give  a  climax  of  mere  loudness 
devoid  of  thought  and  feeling.  Bear  in  mind  that  the 
progress  of  the  thought  and  feeling  will  determine  the 
progress  of  the  expressions;  that  is,  the  vocal  climax. 

Chapter  XV. — Concludikg  Eemarks  o^^  Method 

1.  Give  in  summary  the  purpose  of  the  book  and  dis- 
cuss. 

2.  Do  you  consider  it  relevant  to  the  present  condition  of 
reading  in  the  schools? 

2.  Discuss  the  attitude  in  which  the  majority  of  pupils 
approach  the  reading  lesson.     What  is  the  right  attitude? 

3.  Discuss  once  more  the  author's  stress  upon  avoiding 
all  mechanical  teaching  of  form  and  technique.  What  does 
he  mean  by  '^mental  technique"? 

4.  What  do  you  think  of  public  declamations  for  young 
children? 

5.  If  we  are  not  to  teach  by  imitation,  why  is  it  a  good 
thing  for  the  teacher  to  read  much  to  the  children? 

6.  Are  there  any  arguments  in  favor  of  concert  read- 
ing? 


312  EEADING  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Chapter  XVI. — Literary  Ikterpretatiok 

1.  Give  a  clear  summary  of  all  that  good  reading  involves. 

2.  Show  by  reading  aloud  the  illustration  on  p.  231  what 
good  reading  is  not. 

3.  Explain  our  lack  of  appreciation  of  art. 

4.  Discuss  some  tangible  way  of  inculcating  in  the  child 
the  love  of  the  beautiful.  To  what  extent  shall  we  talk 
about  it,  and  how? 

5.  Note  the  power  of  suggestion  as  compared  with 
detailed  and  exhaustive  explanation. 

6.  Does  careful  and  detailed  thought  analysis  weaken 
literary  appreciation? 

7.  What  do  we  mean  by  the  Unity  of  a  selection? 
Illustrate. 

8.  Discuss  the  statement  that  *'the  value  of  every  detail 
must  be  determined  in  the  light  of  the  whole." 

9.  Show  that  the  significant  changes  in  rhythm  are  due 
to  emotional  changes. 

10.  The  author  himself  has  clearly  indicated  by  careful 
analysis  the  method  of  studying  pages  232-290.  It  may  be 
well,  however,  to  remind  the  teacher  of  the  importance  of 
following  the  analyses  with  the  closest  care  for  their  purpose 
is  to  compel  her  to  test  at  every  step  her  grasp  of  all  the 
principles  dealt  with  in  the  book.  The  author's  notes  seem 
very  simple,  and  yet  they  are  illuminating  and  stimulating 
in  the  highest  degree. 


ONE  MONTH  USE 

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